Comprehensive Test #2

psychology

the science of human behaviour and mental processes

the biological perspective

emphasizes the links between biology (genetics, neurology, ability to adapt) and behaviour

ecology

the science of the relationships between organisms and their environment

the environmental perspective

emphasizes the nongenetic influences, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

culture

the enduring behaviours, ideas, attitudes, technology, and tradition shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

the cognitive perspective

emphasizes the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

the bio-psycho-social perspective

emphasizes that biological, psychological (cognitive), and sociocultural factors combine and interact to produce behaviour - including psychological disorders

triangulation

comparison of at least two views or explanations of the same thing

epistemology

the study and theory of the nature of knowledge

empiricism

the view that a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses and b) science flourishes through observation and experiment

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions; it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

metacognition

thinking about thinking, assumptions, methods, and goals

introspection

reporting on subjective (conscious) events, feelings, and experiences

reflexivity

metacognition that is critical and honest concerning one's own influences and motives; the "U-N-the process of thought"

schema

a concept or framework that organises and interprets information

framing

the way an issue or question is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements; 90% chance of living vs. 10% chance of dying

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving 1)physiological arousal, 2) expressive behaviours, and 3)conscious experience

empathy

understanding so intimate that the feelings, thoughts, and motives of one are readily comprehended by another

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

reciprocity

the mutual or cooperative interchange of favours

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

upward comparison

when we view ourselves as worse off than the standard for comparison

downward comparison

seeing ourselves as better off than the standard for comparison

facial expressions

true for the blind and all cultures - even if it is not considered appropriate

a universal form of "body language" that reveals one's true emotions

researched by Paul Ekman

facial feedback

when sad face muscles are consciously or artificially activated one feels sad - the reverse is true for happy face muscles

researched by James Laird

radar for threats

people spot an angry face in the crowd before a happy face

researched by Arne Ohman

experience influences how we perceive emotions

abused children perceive fear as anger more quickly than non-abused children

researched by Sue Pollock

james-lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

cannon-bard theory

the theory that emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers 1) physiological responses and 2) the subjective experience of emotion

two factor-theory

schachter and singer's theory that to experience emotion one must be 1) physically aroused and 2) cognitively label the arousal

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes)

catharsis

emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

overjustification effect

the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the needs

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of over-eating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson--excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

refractory period

resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

sexual disorder

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

estrogen

a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction towards members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

industrial-organization psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behaviors in workplaces

personnel psychology

a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development

structured interviews

interview processes that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

task leadership

goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals

social leadership

group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

Theory X

assumes workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and intrinsically motivated by money, and thus should be directed from above

Theory Y

assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity

emotional intelligence

researched by Daniel Goleman; the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

the triangular theory of love

a scientific analysis on love based on the observations of intimacy, passion, and commitment

objective well-being

people's quality of life evaluated through physical and economic indicators

flow & diagram

researched by Csikszentmihayli; a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills

the othello error

mistaking the fear of not being believed for the fear of being caught

deception clues

convoluted answers or sophisticated evasions; long pauses--'uhh...uhh'; people with a conscience want to confess, those w/o brag of their skill in lying and show "duping delight"

the interviewer illusion

interviewers overrate their abilities to discern people's skills

the halo error

overall evaluation on appearance or friendliness; one trait

leniency and severity errors

too easy or too harsh

recency error

focus on easy to remember recent behavior

instrumental behaviors

directed at achieving some emotion-relevant goal

approach-approach conflict

occurs when we face two attractive alternatives and selecting one means losing the other

avoidance-avoidance conflict

occurs when we must choose between two undesirable alternatives

approach-avoidance conflict

involves being attracted to and repelled by the same goal

Expectancy X Value Theory

goal-directed behavior is jointly influenced by (1) the person's expectancy that a particular behavior will contribute to reaching the goal and (2) how positively or negatively the person values the goal

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective set, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

rationalization

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

denial

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities

displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses towards a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

reaction formation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality and therapeutic technique that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences--and the therapist's intrepretation of them--released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarassing

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware

id

contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. It operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratifications

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of the personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. It operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

Oedipus conflict

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage in which conflicts were unresolved

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history