Social Science Midterm Rhodes

Myth

traditional story of historic events that unfold parts of the world view of people, practice, belief, or natural phenomenon (neither true nor false)

broken down into:
objective - independent of human consciousness and human beliefs
subjective - depending on the consciousness and beliefs of a single individual
interjective - communication network linking the subjective consciousness of many individuals

E.g.

tower of babel myth: build a tower with its tops in the heavens. There is one language for the whole world, explains importance of language

rosa parks did not give up her seat because she was tired and did not want to walk to the back of the bus; sparked boycott and outburst

Cognitive Revolution

40-70 thousand years ago

humans (Homo sapiens) developed their current cognitive abilities (intelligence, reasoning, modern language, abstraction, etc.)

Neolithic Revolution

10-12 thousand years ago

widespread transition of human society a primary hunter-gatherer existence to an existence based on agriculture (raising crops, herding livestock)

Karl Marx

1818-1883 (19th century): journalist, writer, philosopher, revolutionary

Communist Manifesto

most important is economics (control in production)

Class conflict based on contradictions leads to upheaval of existing economic order (and everything built on top of it)

Emile Durkheim

1885-1917

Lived under the 3rd republic

Works: Division of Labor

division of labor + increased individualism

Modernization and division of labor lead to anomie (normlessness; "breakdown of a social consensus on behavior and values, which can result in a sense of meaninglessness and moral confusion.") and/or increased individualism

believed totemism to be "the simplest and most primitive religion that observation can make known to us

Max Weber

1864-1920

Academic and political actor

Born in Prussia (later Germany)

religious and other changes lead to increased rationality, rationalization (political and economic bureaucratization, economic capitalism

Man the Hunter (Conference/Book)

1966

\
hunting was humanity's original source of livelihood, any theory of society and the nature of Man would require a deep knowledge of how hunters live\\

\
sexual division of labor (women do internal activity; men do outside i.e. hunting)

Frederick Engels

1820-1895

Division of labor of labor between sexes only

Traditional roles as we know it, women look after the house
and men hunt/fish/protect, etc

Housekeeping is communal ⇒ common property

Animism

from 'anima', 'soul' or 'spirit' in Latin) is the belief that almost every place, every animal, every plant, and every natural phenomenon (everything) has awareness and feelings, and can communicate directly with humans

Magic

Mysterious powers" or "means" to "implore the spirits" (Weber, "Science as a Vocation

Totemism

system of belief in which humans are said to have kinship or a mystical relationship with a spirit-being, such as an animal or plant. The entity, or totem, is thought to interact with a given kin group or an individual and to serve as their emblem or symbol

Seneca Iroquois

communal by nature; therefore, ancient societies must be this way too

E.g. of their totems: tortoise, bear, wolf, beaver, deer, falcon
These animals are respected in a clan, vice-versa, and to each other because they all part of the same clan "extended relationship" even if you don't know

spiritual connection

Dunbar's Number

typical number of people we can keep track of and consider part of our social group

150 (tribe)
50 (clan)
15 (superfamily)
5 (close friends)

Mesopotamia

land between the rivers (Tigris and Euphrates)

hierarchy, economics based off agriculture production (change from hunters and gatherers)

Ur

3800 BC one of the first Mesopotamian cities and an important trade center based on the location (near the tiger and euphrates river)

Royal Game of Ur

Board game played in Mesopotamia, one of the forms of entertainment 4600 years old

Hammurabi's Code

first written code/set of laws that all were expected to obey

social order was more important than individual rights

e.g. If a son strikes his father, they shall cut off his hand.

Hammurabi

King of Babylon (1810-1750. BC.E).

He conquered many city-states in southern and northern Mesopotamia and is best known for a code of laws, inscribed on a black stone pillar, illustrating the principles to be used in legal cases.

Enheduanna

2300 BCE

Daughter of Sargon and was appointed the high priestess of Ur

world's first named author

Innana/Ishtar

goddess of love and fertility in Mesopotamian (specifically Ur) religion and lots of things

3rd,4th century BCE

Sumer

First civilization in Mesopotamia

Schools (to teach scribes, scholars, and writers)
Bicameral Congress (to decide on war or peace)
Historians
Flood story
Love song (kind-priestess marriage rite)

Marduk

The chief god of Babylon

justice, compassion, healing, regeneration, magic, and fairness, although he is also sometimes referenced as a storm god and agricultural deity

Plows

Men were prioritized because physical strength is important to producing property (crops)

\***important shift from hunters&gatherers to agriculture

Slaves

lowest class

war captives, indebted, criminals, kidnapped from other regions, sold by family member

Economic Determinism

History can be divided into several stages, based on the main economic system or means of production used during that period

Each economic system created its own particular class structure

Each economic system created its own particular political and social systems

Each economic system contains some contradiction or flaw that leads to conflict and eventually to transformation

Primitive Communism

familial, tribal

Advent of Private Property (Farming, Herding, Specialization)

Economic Surplus

Agriculture production allows for economic surplus (surplus of food), allows for growth in population, and private property

Rationality

way of viewing and approaching the world based on three principles:

Calculability: If we know all the inputs, we know the outcome.

Methodical behavior: There is a certain procedure to follow in order to achieve a certain outcome

Reflexivity: By thinking about what we are doing, we can improve, become more effective and more efficient at achieving a certain outcome

Social Stratification

Surplus and diversification of economic activity led to social stratification (inequality) leads to politics and laws

Environmental Determinism

theory that environmental factors cause all other aspects of social relations (economics, politics, religion, culture, etc.)

E.g. Mesopotamia: rivers + land support agricultural production, irregular floodings (granted by gods), fertile crescents (innana)

Cuneiform

3400 BCE one of the first forms of writing (used in Ancient Mesopotamia)

allows for:
Economic transactions and bookkeeping
Uniform legal structure
Large, efficient bureaucracy
Religious texts
Spread of culture

Comparative Method

the comparative study of similar social units in order to find generalizable rules, relationships and patterns

often used in case studies

allows important similarities to be identified and differences can be isolated

Labor Surplus

the difference between the maximum amount of time that a farmer could work over the course of the year and the time he actually worked

Leisure
Education
Political participation

mobilized for building pyramids and, perhaps, for fighting wars

Production Surplus

the difference between total agricultural output and the consumption needs of its farmers

Allows for economic and social diversification
Provide insurance
Allows for accumulation of family wealth

opportunity for exploitation: privileged (upper) class was at an advantage

Marxist Theory of History

These ideas change over time; economism


1. Primitive communism
2. Slavery
3. Feudalism
4. Capitalism
5. Socialism

Religion

the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods.

E.g. Inanna (Uruk), Marduk (Babylon), Ennil (Nippur), Ashur (Assyria

Animism - everything? (human, animals, plants, natural world, spirits) - indigenous nature worship (shinto), various African Religions
Totemism - human-natural being connection - Objiwa (First nations)
Polytheism - multiple gods - Ancient Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans; Hinduism
Dualism - two gods
Monotheism - one god - Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity. Islam
Nontheism - inimportant; god may or may not exist, but aren't worshipped - buddhism
Atheism - no gods - communism, secular humanism

King Cyrus

leader of the persians, a great leader because he had restraint, wisdom, and mercy towards the jews and other civilizations. let captured jews return to their homeland.

Cyrus Cylinder

an inscription from the time of Cyrus of Persia, saying that Cyrus sent the peoples who had been exiled by the Babylonians back to their homelands and ordered them to rebuild the temples of their gods.

Poleis

cities

over 1000 of them

broken down into colonies

had various forms of government (hereditary kings, nonhereditary tyrants, aristocracy, democracy) Politics only for free males

Persian "Immortals"

Persian

Elite heavy infantry (armed foot soldiers) force of 10,000 soldiers who served as both royal guard and standing army (permanent soldiers).

fallen members were immediately replaced, giving appearance of 10,000 "immortal" soldiers

Hoplites

Greece

citizensoldiers (not professional warriors) who served as heavy infantry, equipped with large round shields, spears and armor

Phalanx

Greece

military formation standing shoulder-to-shoulder, shields in front and spears sticking out

Zoroastrianism

Monotheistic/Dualist

Ahura Mazda is Supreme God, holy, wise, creator

Amesha Spentas 'Holy Immortals'

Angra Mainyu is destructive spirit, source of evil

World traps Angra Mainyu

Heaven, hell, final judgment,

Equal status for men and women, discourages slavery, encourages respect for nature

Athens

religion + politics

Gods Represent natural and human forces, concepts
Gods anthropomorphic but immortal, powerful
Different cities adopted different patron gods
Gods and humans interact (demigods, heroes)
Myths treated as history (Iliad, Odyssey, etc)

Archon

(1068BCE-485 CE)

Archons: chief magistrates or rulers of Athens

Tenure of Archon was:
Lifelong (1068-753 BCE)
Ten years (753-683 BCE)
1 year (682BCE-485 CE)

Power eventually split between 9 Archons:

Top 3 (split power of the old king)
Eponymous Archon: Head of State, year named after him
Polemarch: Commander of the military
Archon basileus: Religious affairs
Thesmothetes: Other 6 Archons

The Assembly (Ekklasia)

6000+ participation

Men could be disqualified from attending the Assembly by owing public debt, committing certain crimes, etc

Men were paid to attend Assembly
40 times/year
Made decision through direct democracy (those assembled voted on major decisions for the city

Direct Democracy

A form of government in which citizens rule directly and not through representatives

Metic

foreign residents

Usually voluntary immigrants or ex-slaves
Had to be sponsored by a citizen
Could not participate in politics
Paid extra taxes
Participated in military service
Up to 1/3 to ½ of population of Athens; rare in most other city-states
Could be granted citizenship by Assembly, which was rare

Socrates

(470-399 BCE) people could lead honest lives and that honor was far more important than wealth, fame, or other superficial attributes

addresses citizens of athens

did not formally write anything

Plato

Plato (428-348 BCE) Citizen of Athens

Wrote many dialogues: Apology, Crito, Republic, etc

Wealthy founder of the Academy (Akademia); owner of 5 slaves

Aristotle

384-322BCE

Metic living in Athens

Wrote many books: Politics, Nicomachean Ethics, etc

Very Wealth founder of the Lyceum

Draco

chosen to be a lawgiver during the Archonship of Aristaechmus (624-623 BCE)

Published first written code of laws for Athens

laws became known for their harshness
Debt slavery
Death penalty for many offenses

Gave franchise (to elect 400) to all men who could provide their own military equipment

Solon

594-593 BC

Opened up membership in the Assembly to all citizens

Made economic reforms, including eliminating debt slavery

Encouraged restoration of morality and check on greed

Cleisthenes

with the help of Sparta, overthrew a tyrant ruling Athens in 510 BCE

reorganized society from 4 descent-based tribes to 10 geographic based ones (10 demes), named after the 10 Eponymous Heroes

Reorganized the Council (Boule) to 500 citizens, 50 from each tribe

Introduced ostracism (exile) based on vote of at least 6000 citizens in Assembly

Areopagus

Initially top council of Athens Composed of former Archons Held positions for life Met on a hill (the rock) called the Areopagus ("Hill of Ares"), hence the name

Greco-Persian Wars

499-449 BCE (between Persia and Greece

490 BCE: Battle of Marathon. Athens and Platea defeat Darius' Persian force
Athens led Greek forces to victory

480 BCE: Battle of Thermopylae. Small Spartan and Theban force (but not 300; more like 7000) temporarily hold off much larger force of Persian King Xerxes
Sparta and Thespiae put up a strong fight against Persians in Battle of Thermopyle

480 BCE: Battle of Salamis: Greek navy defeats Persian navy.
Athens led Greek naval forces to victory

479 BCE: Battle of Plataea: Last land battle of war: Greeks win
Spartan general Pausanias leads Greek forces to victory in Battle of Platea

479 BCE: Battle of Mycale: Naval battle (same time as Plataea): Greeks win this one, too. End or Persian offensive.

Sparta

citizens (male + female) Perioikoi and Sciritae (non-citizen residents) Helots (Slaves)

dual monarchy (diarchy) with two kings from two different families both claiming descent from mythical Heracles (Hercules in Latin)

Delian League

478-404BCE

Association of hundreds of Greek city-states under the leadership of Athens.

Created to defend Greece against Persia during and after Greco-Persian Wars

Increasingly used to advance Athenian power and interests:
Other league members paid tribute to Athens, which built a powerful navy under Athenian command.

Those attempting to leave league punished

Historians refer to Delian League as "The Athenian Empire

Pericles

Son of hero general of Greco-Persian war and member of very wealthy Athenian family

(sponsored) Led construction of Parthenon, other Acropolis buildings

Built/expanded on a lot of landmarks

Formally served as a general (strategos) from 454-429 BCE.
10 generals elected annually for 1 year terms

Pushed through various legal reforms that made political process more accessible for poorer Athenians

Led Athens at beginning of Peloponnesian War

Peloponnesian War

431-404BCE

Greek War fought between Athens and their allies (Delian League) vs Sparta and its allies (Peloponnesian League)

Under Pericles, Athens concedes land supremacy to Sparta and focuses on maintaining navy, waiting out Sparta by staying within the Long Walls
During siege against Athens, plague breaks out, killing thousands of Athenians, including Pericles
Later leaders of the people (demagogues) less wise, over-reach, leading to eventual defeat of Athens

Walls torn down, navy dismantled, democracy replaced by the Thirty (tyrants)
Sparta says no more democracy, thirty overthrown (no longer strong military)

Perioikoi

Perioikoi (neighbors): served as merchants and craftspeople; could travel abroad freely

Sciritae

(mountain people): served as light infantry (foot soldiers without heavy armor) in the Spartan military

Helots

Group living in Messenia area near Sparta

Spartans conquered around 724BCE

Helots forced to remain on their land, deliver portion of crops to Sparta

Worked as servants to Spartans, doing all manual labor

Could buy their freedom

Somewhere between slaves and servants ⇒ doing the actual work besides fighting

Ancient Olympic Games

776 BCE-393BCE

A religious festival for Zeus held every four years in Olympia (gods thought to live on Mt. Olympus)

Grew into 5 day sport festival, over 40,000 attendees from throughout Greece

Artisans, merchants, sculptors, poets, etc. would come
Multiple shrines to various gods erected

Politics

ideas and activities relating to gaining and exercising power within a group of people, an organization, and/or a particular territory

Did not unite Greece because it had a bunch of different colonies

Delian League Empire

Delian League (478-404BCE): Association of hundreds of Greek city-states under the leadership of Athens against Persia (Athenian Empire)

State

ruling bureaucracy; organizational structure
⇒ thirty tyrants takes over
Ex: City-state, Kingdom, Nation-state, Empire
Ex: Army, Areopagus, King, Tax Collectors

Regime

rules and institutions for selecting leader
Ex: Hereditary Monarchy, Democracy, Oligarchy, Tyranny, Aristocracy, Gerontocracy

Government

Government: set of people who are in power
Ex: King Cyrus, "The Thirty,"
Ex: Biden Administration, 118th Congress

Empire

a political order [state] with two important characteristics" (harari saoiens p.190)
"Rule over a significant number of distinct peoples, each possessing a different cultural identity and a separate territory."
A state with "flexible borders and a potentially unlimited appetite."

Alexander the Great

son of Phillip (tutored by Aristotle) wants to conquer the world

336-323 BCE conquers everything until India only stops because troops become tired and Alexander relaxes, died in Babylon