PSYCH FINAL (1,4,7,10,11,12,13,14,15,16)

Wilhelm Wundt

studied the atoms of the mind and his work is considered the birth of psychology as we know it.

Structuralism

use introspection to explore the structural elements of the mind

Functionalism

What are the functions of human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors?

Behaviorism

the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment

Humanism

potential for human growth

Cognitive Psych

How we perceive, process, and remember information

Cognitive Neuroscience

The brain activity underlying mental activity

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Behavior Genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Hindsight Bias

after learning the results of some psychological research, you believe you could have predicted that very outcome

The Coincidence Error

Thinking you can make a prediction from a random series.

Overconfidence Error

People being much more certain than they are accurate

Operational Definitions

A precise statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Random sampling

A technique for making sure that every individual in a population has an equal chance of being in your sample

Random Assignment

Random assignment of participants to control or experimental group is how you control all variables except the one you’re manipulating

Placebo Effect

Experimental effects that are caused by expectations about the intervention

Behavior Genetics

the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Heritability

Is the amount of variation in the population that is explained by genetic factors

Molecular genetics

Studies of the structure and function of genes

Molecular Behavior genetics

How do the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior?

Epigenetics

The study of how the environment acts on the surface of genes to alter their activity (without DNA change)

Culture

refers to the patterns of ideas, attitudes, values, lifestyle habits, and traditions shared by a group of people and passed on to future generations

Individualist culture

value independence. Personal strengths and goals; competition; individual achievement; finding a unique identity

Collectivist culture

value interdependence. Group and societal goals and duties; blending in with group identity; achievement attributed to mutual support

Social learning theory

gender role behavior is learned through observation, imitation, rewards, and punishments

Gender schemas

organize our boy-girl characteristics

Learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Associative Learning

learning that certain events occur together

Classical Conditioning

After repeated exposure to two stimuli occurring in sequence, we associate those stimuli with each other

Operant Conditioning

Behavior and a consequence go together

Cognitive learning

acquiring new behaviors and information mentally

Observational Learning

learning through observing others

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that does not trigger a response

Unconditioned stimulus and response

A stimulus that triggers a response naturally, before/without any conditioning

Acquisition

refers to the initial stage of learning/conditioning

Timing

For the association to be acquired, the neutral stimulus needs to repeatedly appear right before the unconditioned stimulus

Extinction

refers to the diminishing of a conditioned response

Generalization

Refers to the tendency to have conditioned responses triggered by related stimuli

Discrimination

Refers to the learned ability to only respond to specific stimuli, preventing generalization

The Law of Effect

behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Positive (adding) reinforcement

Adding something desirable

Negative (taking away) reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant

Shaping Behavior

You can reward any behavior that comes close to the desired behavior

Continuous Reinforcement

giving a reward after the target every single time, the subject acquires the desired behavior quickly

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement

giving rewards part of the time, the target behavior takes longer to be acquired/established but persists longer without a reward

Punishment

Any consequence that DECREASES the frequency of the behavior it follows

Positive Punishment

You ADD something unpleasant/aversive

Negative Punishment

You TAKE AWAY something pleasant/desired

preparedness

Each species has a biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value

Classical Cognitive Processes

Knowing that our reactions are caused by conditioning gives us the option of mentally breaking the association

Operant Cognitive Processes

Humans can set behavioral goals for themselves and others, and plan their own reinforcers

Intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Fluid Intelligence

Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly

Crystallized Intelligence

Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills

Achievement tests

reflect on what you have learned

Aptitude tests

predict your ability to learn

Intelligence test

assess mental aptitudes using numerical scores; compare to others

Standardization

Defining the meaning of scores based on a comparison with a pretested group

Reliable

generates consistent results

Split-Half Reliability

agreement of odd-question scores and even-question scores

Test-Retest Reliability

using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency

Validity

a test or measure has validity if it accurately measures what it is supposed to measure

content validity

accurately measures your comprehension of a certain topic

Predictive Validity

a test that predicts a variable in the future

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal

Drive

an aroused/tense state related to a physical need (hunger/thirst)

Drive-Reduction Theory

Humans are motivated to reduce drives such as hunger and thirst

Arousal Theory

Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal

Hierarchy of Needs and Motives

humans strive to ensure that basic needs are satisfied before they find motivation to pursue goals that are higher on this hierarchy

Hierarchy of Needs (most important - least important)

Physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, Self-actualization needs, self-transcendence needs

Set Point

stable weight that a body naturally returns to

Sexual Arousal

depends on the interplay of internal and external stimuli

Affiliation need

a deep need to belong

Piaget

believed that the mind of a child develops through a series of stages

Alfred Binet

designed a fair test to measure each child's mental age

Flow

feeling purposefully engaged, deeply immersed, and challenged

intrinsic motivation

the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

the desire to perform a behavior to receive rewards or avoid punishment

Personnel Psych

Match the strengths of people to the tasks of organizations → prosperity and profit

Organizational Psych

Worker motivation, satisfaction, engagement, productivity

Human factors Psych

Tailor appliances, machines, and work settings to fit human abilities and behaviors

Expressive Behavior

yelling and screaming

Bodily Arousal

sweat, pounding heart

Conscious Experience

thoughts, feelings

emotion

a full body/mind/behavior response to a situation

James-Lange Theory

arousal before emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory

arousal and emotion occur simultaneously

Schachter-Singer Theory

emotions do not exist until we add a label to whatever body sensations we are feeling

Emotions without awareness/cognition

some emotional reactions, especially fears, likes, and dislikes, take the low road through the brain, skipping conscious thought

Positive emotions

emotions that correlate with LEFT frontal lobe activity

Negative emotions

emotions that correlate with RIGHT frontal lobe activity

Facial Feedback Effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings

Behavior Feedback Effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

Catharsis Myth

we can reduce anger by releasing it in hostile outbursts

Anger

a flash of anger gives us the energy and initiative to take action

Coping with anger

waiting for physiological arousal to subside, distraction, exercise, verbal expression, hobbies, and distance

Adaptation-level Phenomenon

happiness is relative to our own past experiences so we adjust our neutral levels

Relative Deprivation

Happiness is relative to others' wealth, successes, etc

Stressor

an event/condition that we view as threatening, challenging, or overwhelming