Behavioral science terms 1-160

absolute poverty

poverty wherein people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities such as shelter, food, clothing, and water

absolute threshold

the minimum of stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system

accommodation

process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information

acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter associated with voluntary muscle control

achieved status

a status gained as a result of direct, individual action

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the process of taking advantage of reflexive responses to turn a neural stimulus into a conditioned stimulus

adaptation

in perception, a decrease n stimulus perception after a long duration of exposure; in learning, the process by which new information is processed; consists of assimilation and accommodation

adaptive value

the extent to which a trait benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species

ageism

prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person's age

aggression

a behavior with the intention to cause harm or increase relative social dominance; can be physical or verbal

alcohol myopia

the inability to think about consequences and possible outcomes of one's actions due to alcohol intoxication

alertness

state of consciousness in which one is aware, able to think, and able to respond to the environment; nearly synonymous with arousal

aligning actions

an impression management strategy in which one makes questionable behavior acceptable through excuses

alter-casting

an impression management strategy in which one imposes an identity onto another person

altruism

a form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at a cost to him or herself

amphetamine

a central nervous system stimulant that increases activity of both dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain

amygdala

a portion of the limbic system that is important for memory and emotion, especially fear

anomie

a state of normlessness; erodes social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation

anxiety disorders

disorders that involve worry, unease, fear, and apprehension about future uncertainties based on real or imagined events that can impair physical and psychological health

appraisal model

a similar theory to the basic model, accepting that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced; accepts that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression

archetype

in Jungian psychoanalysis, a thought or image that has an emotional element and is part of the collective unconsciousness

arcuate fasciculus

a bundle of axons that connects Wernicke's area (language comprehension) with Broca's area (motor function of speech)

arousal

a psychological and physiological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli; nearly synonymous with alertness

arousal theory

a theory of motivation that states there is a particular level of arousal required in order to perform actions optimally; summarized by the Yerkes-Dodson law

ascribed status

a status that one is given at birth, such as race, ethnicity, or sex

assimilation

in psychology, the process by which new information is interpreted in terms of existing schemata; in sociology, the process by which the behavior and culture of a group or individual begins to merge with that of another group

associative learning

the process by which a connection is made between two stimuli or a stimulus and a response; examples include classical conditioning and operant conditioning

attachment

a very deep emotional bond to another person, particularly a parent or caregiver

attitude

a tendency toward expression of positive or negative feelings/evaluations of a person, place, thing, or situation

attribute substitution

a phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgments that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or perception

attribution theory

a theory that focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior

authentic self

who someone actually is, including both positive and negative attributes

automatic processing

the brain process most closely resembling autopilot, enabling performance of multiple activities at the same time

autonomic nervous system

the involuntary branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, bronchial dilation, temperature, and digestion

autonomy

the ethical tenet that the physician has responsibility to respect patients' choices about their own healthcare

availability heuristic

a shortcut in decision making that relies on the information that is most readily available, rather than the total body of information on a subject

avoidance learning

a form of negative reinforcement in which one avoids the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen

back stage

in the dramaturgical approach, the setting where players are free from their role requirements and not in front of the audience; back stage behaviors may not be deemed appropriate or acceptable and are thus kept invisible from the audience

barbiturate

a drug that acts as a CNS depressant; often used for anxiety, insomnia, and as an antiseizure medication

basal ganglia

a portion of the forebrain that coordinates muscle movement and routes information from the cortex to the brain and spinal cord

basic model

first established by Darwin, a theory that states that emotional expression involves a number of systems: facial expression as well as behavioral and physical responses; claims that emotions are universal and should be similar across cultures

belief

an acceptance that a statement is true or that something exists

beneficence

the ethical tenet that the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest

benzodiazepine

a CNS depressant that is often used to reduce anxiety or promote sleep

biomedical approach

an approach to psychological disorders that considers only pathophysiological causes and offers pharmaceutical and medical solutions for symptom alleviation

biopsychosocial approach

an approach to psychological disorders that considers treatments and conditions to be dependent on biological, psychological, and social causes

birth rate

the number of births per population in a period of time; usually the number of births per 1000 people per year.

bisexual

a sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of both sexes

brainstem

the most primitive portion of the brain, which includes the midbrain and hindbrain; controls the autonomic nervous system and communication between the spinal cord, cranial nerves, and brain

Broca's aphasia

loss of the motor function of speech, resulting in an intact understanding with an inability to correctly produce spoken language

Broca's area

a brain region located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe (usually in the left hemisphere); largely responsible for the motor function of speech

bureaucracy

a formal organization with the goal of performing complex tasks as efficiently as possibly by dividing work among a number of bureaus

bystander effect

the observation that, when in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need

cannon-bard theory

a theory of emotion that states that a stimulus is first received and is then simultaneously processed physiologically and cognitively, allowing for the conscious emotion to be experienced

cataplexy

loss of muscle control with intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger

catatonia

disorganized motor behavior characterized by various unusual physical movements or stillness

central nervous system

the portion of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord

cerebellum

a portion of the hindbrain that maintains posture and balance and coordinates body movements

cerebral cortex

the outermost layer of the cerebrum, responsible for complex perceptual, behavioral, and cognitive processes

cerebrospinal fluid

an aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest; produced by cells lining the ventricles of the brain

cerebrum

a portion of the brain that contains the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and basal ganglia

characteristic institution

the social structure or institution about which societies are organized

circadian rhythm

the alignment of physiological processes with the 24 hour day, including sleep-wake cycles and some elements of the endocrine system

circular reaction

a repetitive action that achieves a desired response; seen during Piaget's sensorimotor stage

classical conditioning

a form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus such that the neutral stimulus alone produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus

cognitive dissonance

the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions

collective unconscious

in Jungian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that is shared among all humans and is a result of our common ancestry

colliculi

two structures in the midbrain involved in sensorimotor reflexes

superior colliculus

midbrain structure that receives visual sensory input

inferior colliculus

midbrain structure that receives auditory sensory input

compliance

a change of behavior of one individual at the request of another

conduction aphasia

a speech disorder characterized by the inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension; usually due to injury to the arcuate fasciculus

confirmation bias

a cognitive bias in which one focuses on information that supports a given solution, belief, or hypothesis, and ignores evidence against it

conflict theory

a theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of power differentials in producing social order

conformity

the changing of beliefs or behaviors in order to fit into a group or society

consciousness

awareness of oneself, can be used to describe varying levels of awareness that occur with wakefulness, sleep, dreaming, and drug-induced states

conservation

concept seen in quantitative analysis performed by a child; develops when a child is able to identify the difference between quantity by number and actual amount, especially when faced with identical quantities separated into varying pieces

context effect

a retrieval cue by which memory is aided when a person is in the location where encoding took place

contralateral

on the opposite side of the body, relative to something else (usually a side of the brain)

controlled (conscious) processing

processing method used when a task requires complete attention

correspondent inference theory

a theory that states that people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental behavior when making attributions, especially if the behavior is unexpected

critical period

a time during development during which exposure to language is essential for eventual development of the effective use of language; occurs between 2 years of age and puberty

crystallized intelligence

cognitive capacity to understand relationships or solve problems using information acquired during schooling and other experiences

cultural relativism

the theory that social groups and cultures must be studied on their own terms to be understood

cultural sensitivity

recognizing and respecting the differences between cultures

cultural syndrome

a shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors organized around a central theme and found among people who speak the same language and share a geographic region

deductive reasoning

a form of cognition that starts with general information and narrows down that information to create a conclusion

defense mechanism

in Freudian psychoanalysis, a technique used by the ego that denies, falsifies, or distorts reality in order to resolve anxiety caused by undesirable urges of the id and superego

deindividuation

the idea that people will lose a sense of self-awareness and can act dramatically differently based on the influence of a group

delusions

fixed, false beliefs that are discordant with reality and not shared by one's culture, and are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary

demographic transition

the transition from high birth and mortality rates to lower birth and mortality rates, seen as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system

demographics

the statistical arm of sociology, which attempts to characterize and explain populations by quantitative analysis

depressant

any substance that reduces nervous system function

depressive episode

a period of at least two weeks in which there is a prominent and persistent depressed mood or lack of interest and at least four other depressive symptoms

deviance

the violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society

DSM

the guide by which most psychological disorders are characterized, described, and diagnosed

diencephalon

a portion of the prosencephalon that becomes the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland

disconfirmation principle

the idea that states that if evidence obtained during testing does not confirm a hypothesis, then the hypothesis is discarded or revised

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the process by which two similar but distinct conditioned stimuli produce different responses; in sociology, when individuals of a particular group are treated differently than others based on their group

dishabituation

a sudden increase in response to a stimulus, usually due to a change in the stimulus or addition of another stimulus, sometimes called resensitization