unit 2 test

neurons

Neurons are specialized cells that transmit information in the nervous system. They consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. Neurons communicate through electrical impulses and chemical signals called neurotransmitters. They play a crucial role in processes like perception, movement, and cognition.

cell body

The main part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles. It receives and integrates incoming signals from dendrites and sends outgoing signals through the axon.

dendrites

Dendrites are branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons. They play a crucial role in transmitting information towards the cell body, where it is processed. Dendrites contain receptors that bind to neurotransmitters, allowing for communication between neurons.

axons

Long, slender projection of a neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons or target cells.

synapse

A synapse is a junction between two nerve cells where information is transmitted. It allows electrical or chemical signals to pass from one neuron to another, enabling communication within the nervous system.

myelin sheath

Insulating layer around nerve fibers. Speeds up electrical impulses. Damaged in conditions like multiple sclerosis.

sensory neuron

A type of neuron responsible for transmitting sensory information from the body to the central nervous system.

motor neuron

A type of nerve cell that transmits signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands. They play a crucial role in controlling movement and coordinating bodily functions.

conduction

the transmission of excitation along a nerve, muscle, or other tissue

transmission

the act or process of causing something from one place or another, or the transfer of info between neurons

terminal buttons

Small structures at the end of a neuron's axon branches that store and release neurotransmitters into the synapse, facilitating communication between neurons.

neuro transmitters

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons. They are released from the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, allowing for communication. Examples include dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine.

peripheral nervous system

"Insulating layer around nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system. Speeds up the transmission of electrical impulses. Helps protect and maintain the integrity of nerve fibers."

somatic nervous system

Part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for voluntary movements and sensory perception. Controls skeletal muscles and relays information to the brain.

autonomic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing. It is further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.

sympathetic nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the body's "fight or flight" response. It activates during times of stress or danger, increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and releasing adrenaline.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Rest and digest. Part of the autonomic nervous system that controls bodily functions during times of relaxation and recovery. Slows heart rate, stimulates digestion, and promotes relaxation. Works in opposition to the sympathetic nervous system.

central nervous system

The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and coordinating information in the body.

spinal cord (damage)

Injury to the bundle of nerves running down the back, resulting in loss of sensory and motor function below the injury site."

hindbrain

Part of the brain located at the back, responsible for basic functions like breathing, heart rate, and balance.

medulla

Part of the hindbrain responsible for vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure regulation.

reticular function

responsible for regulating sleep-wake cycles, attention, and consciousness. It filters sensory information, allowing us to focus on important stimuli while ignoring irrelevant ones. It also plays a role in maintaining arousal levels and alertness.

cerebellum

Part of the brain responsible for coordination, balance, and motor control. It helps maintain posture and fine-tune movements.

midbrain

Part of the brainstem that connects the forebrain and hindbrain. It plays a crucial role in relaying sensory and motor information, regulating sleep-wake cycles, and controlling involuntary movements.

forebrain

The part of the brain responsible for complex cognitive functions, emotions, and sensory processing. It includes the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus.

thalamus

"A brain structure located in the forebrain. It acts as a relay station, transmitting sensory information to different parts of the brain. It plays a crucial role in regulating consciousness, sleep, and sensory perception."

hypothalamus

"Part of the brain that regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland."

hippocampus

A region in the brain responsible for memory formation and spatial navigation. It is involved in the consolidation of short-term memory into long-term memory and plays a crucial role in learning and emotional regulation. Damage to the hippocampus can result in memory loss and difficulties with navigation.

amygdala

Part of the brain responsible for processing emotions, fear, and emotional memories. Plays a role in the fight-or-flight response and decision-making.

cerebral cortex

Outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as thinking, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.

contralateral control

The ability of one side of the brain to control the opposite side of the body. It is achieved through the crossing over of nerve fibers in the spinal cord and brainstem. Allows for coordinated movement and sensory perception.

corpus callosum

The structure that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing for communication and coordination between them.

occipital lobe

The lobe located at the back of the brain responsible for processing visual information and interpreting it.

parietal lobe

Located at the top of the brain, it processes sensory information like touch, temperature, and spatial awareness."

temporal lobe

Temporal Lobe Location: Brain's cerebral cortex, above the ears Function: Involved in processing auditory information, memory, language comprehension, and emotion regulation. Notable Features: Contains the primary auditory cortex and the hippocampus, crucial for forming and retrieving memories. Associated Conditions: Temporal lobe epilepsy, auditory processing disorders.

frontal lobe

Part of the brain responsible for decision-making, problem-solving, and personality. Located at the front of the cerebral cortex.

brain plasticity

The brain's ability to change and reorganize itself throughout life in response to experiences, learning, and environmental factors. It involves the creation of new neural connections and the strengthening or weakening of existing connections.

neural tube

Embryonic structure that develops into the brain and spinal cord. Forms during the early stages of fetal development through a process called neurulation. Gives rise to the central nervous system, which controls bodily functions and processes sensory information.

split brain

A condition resulting from the surgical severing of the corpus callosum, which connects the brain's left and right hemispheres. This limits communication between hemispheres, leading to unique cognitive effects, such as the inability to verbally communicate information presented to the non-dominant hemisphere.

nature vs nuture

The debate regarding the influence of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on human development and behavior.

sensation

The process of detecting and receiving information from our environment through our senses, such as sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell.

transduction

Process by which sensory stimuli are converted into electrical signals that can be interpreted by the brain.

perception

The process of interpreting and making sense of sensory information received from the environment through our senses. It involves the organization, identification, and interpretation of stimuli, allowing us to understand and interact with our surroundings.

absolute threshold

The minimum stimulation needed for a sensory system to detect a particular stimulus at least 50% of the time.

just noticeable difference (difference threshold)

The just noticeable difference (difference threshold) is the smallest amount of change in a stimulus that can be detected by a person. It varies depending on the stimulus and individual. It helps determine our ability to perceive differences in sensory experiences.

multitasking

The ability to perform multiple tasks simultaneously, often switching between them rapidly. It can lead to decreased productivity and increased errors due to divided attention.

sensory adaptation (change vs consistent stimuli)

Sensory adaptation refers to the decreased sensitivity of our sensory receptors to a constant or consistent stimulus over time.

visual activity

Visual activity refers to the ability of the eye to distinguish and perceive details of objects at various distances. It is measured using a visual acuity chart, with 20/20 vision considered normal. A higher visual activity indicates better visual acuity, while a lower visual activity suggests poorer vision.

20/20 vision

refers to normal visual acuity, where a person can see at 20 feet what a typical individual can see at 20 feet. It indicates clear and sharp vision without the need for corrective lenses.

light wave (wave length)

The distance between two consecutive points of a wave is called wave length. It determines the color and type of light wave.

cornea

Thin, transparent outer layer of the eye that covers the iris and pupil. It helps focus light onto the retina, allowing us to see clearly.

pupil

Part of the eye that controls the amount of light entering the eye.

lens

A transparent structure located behind the iris of the eye, responsible for focusing light onto the retina.

retina

• Location: Innermost layer of the eye

• Function: Converts light into electrical signals

• Contains: Photoreceptor cells (rods and cones)

• Sends signals to: Optic nerve for processing in the brain

• Key role in: Vision and visual perception

accommodation

Type of lodging or place where one stays temporarily, often while traveling or on vacation. Provides shelter, comfort, and basic amenities such as a bed, bathroom, and sometimes kitchen facilities. Can range from hotels, hostels, and resorts to rental apartments, vacation homes, and campsites.

nearsightedness

A common vision condition where objects up close appear clear, but distant objects appear blurry. Caused by the eyeball being too long or the cornea being too curved, causing light to focus in front of the retina rather than on it. Corrected with glasses or contact lenses.

farsightedness

A refractive error where distant objects appear clear, but close objects appear blurry. It is caused by the eye focusing light behind the retina instead of directly on it. Corrected with convex lenses.

cones

"Photoreceptor cells responsible for color vision and high visual acuity in bright light conditions."

rods

photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for vision in low light conditions. They are highly sensitive to light but do not perceive color. Rods are concentrated in the peripheral areas of the retina and are essential for peripheral vision and night vision.

fovea

"The area at the center of the retina responsible for sharp central vision. It contains a high concentration of cone cells for color perception and detailed visual acuity."

blind spot

Area on the retina with no photoreceptor cells. It is where the optic nerve exits the eye. It results in a small region where we cannot perceive visual information.

primary colors (red, green, blue)

The fundamental colors in psychology that cannot be created by mixing other colors. They are red, green, and blue.

color deficiency

A condition where an individual has difficulty distinguishing certain colors, usually red and green, due to abnormalities in the cones of the retina. It can be inherited or acquired due to eye diseases or aging.

visual streams

The pathway that carries visual information from the eyes to the brain for processing and interpretation.

ventral (what)

refers to the front or belly side of an organism. It is the opposite of dorsal, which refers to the back or spine side.

dorsal (where)

Refers to the pathway in the brain responsible for processing spatial information and guiding movement. It helps us determine the location of objects in our environment and is involved in tasks such as reaching, grasping, and navigating.

perceptual grouping rules

helps organize visual information. Proximity states that objects close to each other are perceived as a group. Similarity suggests that objects with similar attributes are grouped together. Continuity states that elements forming a continuous pattern are grouped. Closure refers to our tendency to complete incomplete figures.

simplicity

The quality of being easy to understand or do, without unnecessary complexity or complications.

closure

The perceptual process of mentally filling in missing information to create a complete and whole image or concept. It allows us to perceive objects or patterns even when they are incomplete or partially obscured. It helps us make sense of our visual environment and aids in organizing and interpreting visual stimuli.

continuity

The principle that states that a function or process remains consistent and unbroken over a given interval or range. It implies that there are no sudden or abrupt changes, but rather a smooth and gradual progression.

similarity

The quality or state of being similar or alike in appearance, nature, or characteristics. It refers to the resemblance or comparison between two or more things. It helps in identifying common features or patterns and understanding relationships.

proximity

Closeness or nearness of objects or individuals to each other.

common fate

When objects move in the same direction or at the same time, we perceive them as belonging to the same group.

figure-ground

refers to the perception of objects in a visual scene. It involves distinguishing the main object (figure) from the background (ground).

relative size

is a visual perception cue where objects that are larger appear closer, while smaller objects appear farther away.

linear perspective

Technique used in art to create the illusion of depth and three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. It involves using converging lines that meet at a vanishing point on the horizon line.

change blindness

Failure to detect changes in visual scenes due to limited attention and memory. Can occur even when changes are significant.

consciousness

"Awareness of one's thoughts, sensations, and surroundings; the state of being awake and aware. It involves subjective experiences and self-awareness. It is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that remains a topic of ongoing scientific study."

experience

The accumulation of knowledge, skills, and understanding gained through involvement in various activities, situations, or events.

agency

refers to an individual's sense of control and intentionality over their actions and the outcomes they produce. It involves the belief that one is an active agent who can make choices and influence their environment. This concept is important in understanding motivation, goal-setting, and self-efficacy."

levels of consiousness

States of awareness that vary in depth and clarity. Includes wakefulness, sleep, and altered states like meditation or hypnosis.

full conscioisness

refers to a state of complete awareness and alertness, where an individual is fully awake and responsive to their surroundings. It involves a high level of cognitive functioning, including perception, attention, memory, and self-awareness.

self-consiousness

The awareness of one's own thoughts, feelings, and actions, as well as the recognition of oneself as an individual separate from others. It involves introspection and the ability to reflect on and evaluate oneself.

minimal consciousness

refers to a state where a person displays limited awareness and responsiveness to their surroundings. It is characterized by basic sensory perception, such as the ability to feel pain or hear sounds, but lacks higher cognitive functions like self-awareness or complex thought processes.

daydreaming

A spontaneous and self-generated mental activity characterized by a shift in attention away from the external environment towards internal thoughts, fantasies, or imagined scenarios. It often occurs when an individual is awake but not actively engaged in a task, allowing for creative thinking and problem-solving.

mental control

The ability to regulate and direct one's thoughts, emotions, and actions consciously and purposefully, enabling individuals to focus, resist distractions, and make intentional choices in line with their goals and values. It involves self-awareness, self-discipline, and the capacity to manage impulses and reactions effectively.

thought supression

Technique used to consciously try to push away or eliminate unwanted thoughts, often resulting in the opposite effect of making the thoughts more persistent and intrusive.

ironic processes of mental control

When our attempts to suppress certain thoughts or behaviors actually make them more likely to occur. The more we try to avoid thinking about something, the more it pops up in our minds. It's like trying not to think of a pink elephant - the harder we try, the more we think about it. This phenomenon is known as ironic processes of mental control.

the rebound effect of thought suppression

The tendency for suppressed thoughts to resurface with greater intensity.

dynamic unconsious

refers to the part of the mind that contains repressed memories, desires, and unresolved conflicts. It influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors without our awareness."

repression

Defense mechanism where unacceptable thoughts, memories, or emotions are pushed into the unconscious mind to avoid conscious awareness.

cognitive unconsiouness

State of being unaware or unconscious of one's thoughts, feelings, or surroundings due to a shift in cognitive processes.

subliminal stimuli

Subliminal stimuli are sensory inputs that occur below the threshold of conscious perception. They can influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors without awareness. Used in advertising and psychology experiments, they aim to bypass conscious processing. Examples include hidden messages in advertisements or brief flashes of images.

altered state of consciousness

A condition in which an individual's normal cognitive processes are significantly changed, such as during hypnosis or under the influence of drugs. It involves a shift in awareness, perception, and thinking, often resulting in unusual experiences or behaviors.

beta waves

High-frequency brain waves that occur during periods of active thinking, concentration, and alertness. They are associated with increased mental activity, problem-solving, and focus. these waves are commonly observed during wakefulness and can indicate a state of heightened cognitive processing.

sleep stages

Different phases of sleep that occur throughout the night, characterized by distinct patterns of brain activity and physiological changes.

slow-wave sleep (slow-wave deprivation)

A stage of sleep characterized by slow brain waves, deep relaxation, and limited dreaming. Lack of slow-wave sleep can lead to cognitive impairments, mood disturbances, and decreased immune function.

delta waves

Slow, high amplitude brain waves seen in deep sleep. Associated with the unconscious mind and relaxation. Often found in individuals with brain injuries or certain sleep disorders.

stage 5/REM sleep (REM deprivation)

The stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement (REM) and vivid dreaming. Lack of REM sleep can lead to REM deprivation, resulting in impaired memory, mood disturbances, and decreased cognitive function.

when do we sleep less as people?

as you age