Research Methods

Self-report techniques

Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and experiences related to a given topic.

Questionnaire

A set of written questions (sometimes called items) used to access a persons' thoughts/experiences

Strengths of questionnaires

+ Cost effective
+ Can gather large amounts of data quickly
+ Can be completed without the researcher being present

Weaknesses of questionnaires

• Answers may be affected by response bias e.g. social desirability bias

• Ps may misunderstand the question or read it incorrectly

Open Questions

Questions with no fixed answer/ response and respondents can answer in any way they wish.

Evaluation of Open Questions

+ Get more valid, rich and qualitative data
- Harder to analyse the data

Closed Question

Questions with a fixed answer/ the choice of response is determined by the question setter.

Evaluation of Closed Questions

+ Quantitative data is easier to analyse
- Lacking detailed or in depth answers, which may not reflect the Ps true meaning.

Structured Interview

Made up of pre-determined questions and are asked in a fixed order, face to face.

Unstructured Interview

There is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed and interaction tends to be free flowing.

Face validity

Measures whether a test "looks like" it tests what it is supposed to test.

Concurrent validity

The results from a test match those from an established test. There should be a high positive correlation between the 2 sets of results (+0.8).

Evaluation of Structured Interviews

+ Replicable
+ Easier to compare P's answers/analyse
+ Focussed data
- Less valid data, as information is missed if questions/answers are too restricted

Evaluation of of Unstructured Interview

• Can get more detailed answers as people can elaborate

• Allows the interviewer to follow up interesting answers

• Not easy to replicate

• Not easy to compare Ps responses/analyse data

• Unfocussed data

Aim

A general statement that the researcher intends to investigate.

Hypothesis

A detailed statement which is operationalised and testable that states the affect of the IV on the DV/ relationship between co-variables.

Directional Hypothesis

The researcher makes it clear what significant difference is anticipated between the 2 conditions/ what relationship is anticipated between co-variables
(One tailed).

Non-directional Hypothesis

Simply states that there will be a significant difference between groups/ relationship between co-variables, but not what the difference/ relationship will be.

Null Hypothesis

States that there will be no effect of the IV on the DV/ relationship between the 2 co-variables.

Meta-analysis

A particular form of research method that uses secondary data. Data from a large number of studies which have involved the same research question and method are combined.

Quantitative Data

Numerical data

Evaluation of qualitative data

+Rich and detailed
-Difficult to analyse
-Subjective

Qualitative Data

Descriptive data expressed in words.

Evaluation of quantitative data

+Easy to analyse
+More objective
-Less meaningful

Primary Data

Information that has been obtained first hand by the researcher from the Ps. It is also known as field

Evaluation of primary data

+High validity as it's collected with specific aim in mind
-Time consuming to gather

Secondary Data

Information that has already been collected by previous researchers. It is also known as 'desk research' and can be found in journal articles, books or websites.

Evaluation of secondary data

+Quick to gather
- Bias in original interpretation can reduce validity

BPS

British Psychological Society

Informed Consent

Part of the BPS' code of ethics: when research is explained, it must be done in such a way that people are not misled to act in a way which is not in their best interest.If under 16 consent must be obtained from their parents.

Deception

When information is withheld from participants/ they misled about the purpose of the study.

Right to Withdraw

Part of the BPS' code of ethics: Ps should be told this at the start of the research that they can leave (or withdraw their data) when they wish. No attempt should be made to encourage them to remain.

Protection from harm

Part of the BPS' code of ethics: should leave studies in the same condition in which they arrived, without suffering any trauma.

Debrief

Part of the BPS' code of ethics: researchers should discuss the aims of the research with the Ps after they have completed the study.

Contents of a debriefing statement

•Thank you for taking part
•Aim of the experiment (NOT results)
•What happened in the other condition
•Right to withdraw data
•Any questions/ provide contact details for follow up questions?

Contents of standardised instructions

•NOT the aim of the experiment
•What the task will be
•Right to withdraw
•Ensure confidentiality
•Ask for consent (check over 16), including a space to sign.

Areas in which psychological knowledge could impact on the economy

• The workforce
• Healthcare

Independent Variable - IV

An aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally.

Dependent Variable - DV

The variable that is measured by the researcher.

Operationalising Variables

The process of devising a way of measuring a variable. It is a clear statement of what the variable is.

Lab Experiment

An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV while maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.

Advantages of a Lab Experiment

+ Can establish cause and effect
+ Few if any extraneous variables
+Easy to replicate to check reliability.
+High internal validity

Disadvantages of a Lab Experiment

• Lacks ecological / external validity

• Demand characteristics can occur

• Experimenter effects can occur -May raise ethical issues e.g. deception

Field Experiment

The researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV in the Ps own natural environment.

Advantages of a Field Experiment

+ More ecologically/externally valid than lab
+ Fewer demand characteristics and experimenter effects than lab if Ps unaware they are being tested.

Disadvantages of a Field Experiment

• Extraneous variables more difficult to control

• More difficult to replicate exactly

• May raise ethical issues

Natural Experiment

An experiment where the change in the IV is not caused by the researcher- as it would have happened if the researcher wasn't there. The researcher records the effect on the DV.

Advantages of a Natural Experiment

+ Fewer demand characteristics or researcher effects if Ps unaware of being tested.
+ Fewer ethical issues
+ Allows Ps who wouldn't normally be tested to take part.

Disadvantages of a Natural Experiment

• Lack of control over extraneous variables

• No random allocation can create confounding variables

• Impossible to replicate exactly

Quasi Experiment

The IV is a characteristic of the Ps (themselves (usually takes place in a lab).

Advantages of quasi experiments

+ IF in a lab, high control over extraneous variables
+Easy to replicate to check reliability.

Disadvantages of quasi experiments

-No random allocation can create confounding variables
-IF in a lab, artificial conditions may reduce ecological validity

Extraneous Variables

Any variable apart from the IV which has the potential to effect the DV if not controlled.

Confounding Variables

A variable apart from the IV which HAS effected the DV,meaning the effect of the IV can't be concluded validly.

Random Allocation

Organising participants by chance so that each has an equal chance of ending up in each condition

Ecological Validity

How methods can be applied to real life settings.

Temporal validity

Refers to how likely it is that the time period when a study was conducted has influenced the findings and whether they can be generalised to other periods in time,

Demand Characteristics

Any cue from the research situation that can be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation, leading them to changing their behaviour.

Investigator Effects

Any (unintentional) influence of the researcher's behaviour/characteristics on participants/data/outcome.

Experimental Methods

The type of experiment you do.

Experimental Designs

How Ps are allocated to the conditions of an experiment

Independent Groups Design

Each participant either takes part in condition A or B

Advantages of Independent Groups Design

+ Reduces demand characteristics
+ Prevents order effects

Disadvantages of Independent Groups Design

• Individual differences could be confounding.

• More Ps are required

Repeated Measures Design

Every P takes part in both conditions of the experiment.

Advantages of Repeated Measures Design

+ Individual differences are controlled
+Fewer Ps are required

Disadvantages of Repeated Measures Design

• Increased likelihood of demand characteristics confounding results

• Order effects can occur

Matched Pairs Design

Participants are matched on key characteristics. Each is randomly allocated to one of the conditions.

Advantages of Matched Pairs Design

+ Reduces demand characteristics
+ Prevents order effects
+Participant variables are controlled

Disadvantages of Matched Pairs Design

• Time consuming

• More Ps are required

• Hard to match Ps on all variables

Counterbalancing

An attempt to control order effects in a repeated measures design where one group takes part in condition A THEN B, and one group takes part in condition B THEN A.

Stardardisation

Keeping variables the same as a method of control e.g. instructions to Ps, time of day of memory test.

Order Effects

A extraneous variable arising from the order which Ps take part in the different conditions, so their performance improves/worsens across conditions through practice/fatigue.

Randomisation

Deciding the order of variables by chance e.g. words on a memory test.

Naturalistic Observation

Take place in a setting where behaviour would usually occur.

Evaluation of Naturalistic Observations

• High ecological validity

• Hard to replicate

• Extraneous variables can influence behaviour

Controlled Observation

Observing people under controlled conditions

Evaluation of Controlled Observations

+ Easy to replicate
+ More control over extraneous variables
- Findings may lack ecological validity

Participant Observation

The researcher is involved in/with the observation.

Evaluation of Participant Observations

+ Observer has greater understanding to be able to contextualise their observations.
- The behaviour of the Ps may be affected by the observer, reducing validity of findings.

Non-Participant Observation

A researcher observes people without becoming part of the situation.

Evaluation of Non-Participant Observations

+ Allows researcher to remain objective.
- Researcher is less able to contextualise the observed behaviour.

Covert Observation

Ps are not aware of being observed.

Evaluation of Covert Observations

+ Prevents the observer effect so more natural behaviour is observed.
- Ethical issues.

Overt Observation

Ps are aware that they are being observed

Evaluation of Overt Observations

+ Fewer ethical issues
- Behaviour can be influenced as Ps know they're being watched

Behavioural categories

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable.

Time sampling

Recording behaviour with a pre established time frame e.g. every 30 seconds, so observer has time to record what they have seen although some behaviour may be missed.

Event sampling

Counting the time a particular behaviour occurs in a group/individual, so behaviour isn't missed (although if too much happens at once, it may be difficult to record everything).

Inter-Observer Reliability

Two or more researchers observe the same behaviour separately at the same time then compare and amend results. A correlation of +0.8 indicates high reliability.

Content Analysis

The process of interpreting secondary material as a way to understand behaviour. Involves coding material according to categories, counting frequency of certain categories.

Thematic analysis

A type of content analysis: materials (possibly converted into written transcripts first) are reviewed and coded to look for emerging THEMES. The data is qualitative.

Evaluation of content analysis

+No ethical issues, as no people are directly involved.
-Coding of materials is subjective.

Target Population

The entire group a researcher is interested in.

Bias (in sampling)

When certain groups are over or under represented with in the sample selected. It limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.

Generalisation

When findings from a particular sample under investigation are broadly applied to the target population. This is possible if the sample of people is representative of the population.

Peer Review definition

The assessment of work by other specialists in the same field before it is published.

Process of peer review

One or more experts in the field assess the work. It may be accepted outright; accepted with the condition that modifications are made; or rejected.

Aims of Peer Review

To verify

• should research be published? -whether method used/statistics used were appropriate? -the implications of the research to the field?

• whether the work the researchers' own?

Case Study

A research method that involves a detailed study of a signal individual, institution or event.