Psychology Final

stereotyping

cognition, thoughts/beliefs, about a social group

prejudice

affect, evaluation/emotions, toward people based on their membership in a social group

discrimination

behavior towards people based on their membership in a social group

relationship between discrimination, prejudice, & stereotyping

stereotype endorsement can evoke prejudicial feelings & affect behavior; stereotype activation can influence our perception of person/situation, which in turn affects behavior toward them; stereotype activation --> application --> prejudice --> discrimination

non-conscious behaviors

information related to particular group must be active in memory to do anything

historical significance of Allport's nature of prejudice

formal attempt to define & explore prejudice; prejudice is thinking ill of others without sufficient warrant; prejudice is at least in part a consequence of limited cognitive resources; response to holocaust

Ingroup

any group we belong to

Outgroup

Any group we do not belong to

Importance of ingroup vs outgroup

distinction affects how we think about people

Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, & Flamant

Used minimal group paradigm

Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, & Flamant study 1 results

allocations were fair when dividing between two ingroup or two outgroup members; allocations consistently favored the ingroup member when dividing between an ingroup or outgroup member

Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, & Flamant study 2 results

allocation emphasized maximum payoff between two ingroup members; allocation emphasized biggest difference in amount between ingroup & outgroup member, at ingroup expense

basic social categories

social categories for which people have a wealth of info available in memory race, age gender; easily observable & accessible

exemplar based representation

associated with specific examples

abstract representation

associated with category label directly

process of representation

association is a product of attention; the more often we notice two pieces of info co-occuring the more likely we are to associate them, & stronger the association becomes; different types of info grab our attention, we attend to the info before it is encoded, & encoding creates associations between info

outgroup homogeniety

assumption that members of outgroups all share the same traits & qualities; affects us to view outgroup as being all alike; stems from limited cognitive resources

activation

making a given stereotype active in memory

application

using stereotype-relevant info to evaluate a target

Devine study 1 results

no difference in words listed between low & high prejudiced people; equally knowledgable of stereotype

devine study 2 results

80% stereotype word condition rated behavior more negatively & perceived more aggression than 20% stereotype word condition regardless of prejudice level;

* stereotype activation outside of awareness influenced perception for both high & low prejudiced Ps

devine study 3 results

high & low prejudiced Ps had no difference in total # & in # of pos/neg labels; high prejudice --> more negative traits; low prejudice --> more positive beliefs

devine study overall

everyone knows stereotypes; activation equal; application differs by level of prejudice

protoypicality

how much does the target match the stereotype; affects the speed & ease of categorization

inference

conclusions we draw from things we observe; what does someone do

attribution

explanations we generate for the things we observe; why someone does it

Sagar & Schofield results - behavioral charcteristics

black actors rated more mean & threatening than white actors across vignettes; everyone rated black actor more threatening; white Ps perceived more threat in vignettes with no physical contact than black Ps

Sagar & Schofield results - personal characteristics

white Ps perceived black actors & targets as stronger than white actors & targets; white Ps perceived black targets as more threatening than white targets

cross race effect

people have better memories for faces of members of their own race than faces of a difference race; better at distinguishing familiar from unfamiliar faces

Hugenberg & Bodenhausen study 1 results - anger offset

Ps higher in implicit prejudice, longer they saw anger linger on black faces; no difference in implicit prejudice for white faces; no effect of explicit prejudice on emotion detection for either black or white faces

Hugenberg & Bodenhausen study 2 results - anger onset

Ps higher in implicit prejudice more quickly they saw anger show up on black faces; no difference by implicit prejudice for white faces

Hugenberg & Bodenhausen overall

implicit prejudice influence how we see emotion on black & white faces, & how we are likely to categorize faces whose race is ambiguous; effects get stronger as implicit prejudice increases, but not explicit

infrahumanization

perceive outgroup as possessing fewer uniquely human features than the ingroup

objectifcation

use perceptual processes associated with non-human stimuli for outgroup

mind perception

perceive outgroup as less possessed of individual thoughts, emotions, & goals than the ingroup

Correl, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink study 1 results

Ps faster to make shoot decisions for armed Ts than do not shoot for unarmed Ts; made shoot decision faster for armed black than armed white Ts; faster to make do no shoot decision for unarmed white than unarmed black Ts

Correl, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink study 2 results

Ps made more shoot for unarmed black Ts than unarmed white Ts

Correl, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink study 3 results

replicated study 1 results; results positively correlated with general stereotype knowledge & amount of outgroup contact; less about beliefs more about stereotype accessibility

Correl, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink study 4 results

replicated study 1 results; same reaction speed for black & white Ps

Correl, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink overall

armed Ts, Ps faster to shoot black than white; unarmed Ts, Ps slower to not shoot black than white; Ps more likely to shoot unarmed black Ts than unarmed white Ts, more likely to not shoot armed white Ts than armed black Ts

blatant discrimination

unequal & harmful treatment that is typically intentional & quite visible; racism, homophobic

subtle discrimination

unequal & harmful treatment that is typically less visible & obvious than blatant; unintentional, passive or active

implicit awareness

capable only of detecting difference between stimuli

explicit awareness

consciously aware of categories, labels, & meaning of labels

changes in gender-related prejudice over childhood

other-gender prejudice emerges 3/4 yo; prejudice is bidirectional 4-8 yo children care more about gendered labels than behavior (sissy vs tomboy); after 8 other sex prejudice declines slightly & less prevalent as individuals become romantically interested & involved

heterosexism in adolescence

discomfort with interacting with homosexual peers increases as the intimacy of the situation increases; minority groups express more negative attitudes toward homosexual individuals; being highly religious, being high on SDO, holding traditional gender-role attitudes

certainty

important group memberships provide us with useful info about our place in the world

boost self-esteem

important group membership serves self-enhancement motive; self-confirmation bias

social comparison

important group membership contribute to a clear, consistent self-concept, & give us a means by which we compare ourselves to others

Greive & Hogg results

categorized Ps in high uncertainty showed significantly higher ingroup bias than other 3 conditions; categorized Ps in high uncertainty showed significantly higher ingroup identification compared to other 3 conditions

national identity - ethnic view

based on ancestry

national identity - civic view

adherence to nation's ideals & institutions

national identity & prejudice

group narcissism, superiority of one country's culture over another, can exacerbate prejudice; country's cultural commitment to diversity can reduce prejudice

Zero sum beliefs

one group's gain is another group's loss; more likely to express prejudice

relative deprivation

perceived deficiency leads to comparison

types of relative deprivation

compare present life with life in the past; compare own life to lives of others; unfavorable comparisons lead to prejudice

integrated threat theory factors that contribute to perceived threat - intergroup anxiety

factors that make people feel anxious or nervous in presence of members of another group

integrated threat theory factors that contribute to perceived threat - perceptions of realistic threat

derive from intergroup conflict & competition & feelings of group relative deprivation

integrated threat theory factors that contribute to perceived threat - symbolic threat

perceptions that outgroup differs from ingroup in terms of symbolic factors

authoritarianism

set of motivations & reactions based in a strong need for structure & certainty; obedience & authority

authoritarian submission

need to follow established, legitimate authority

authoritarian aggression

aggression against ougroups sanctioned by authority

conventionalism

need to follow the social customs established by authority

social dominance orientation

related needs to hierarchy & superiority; group based dominance; \\n rigid hierarchical social structure; opposition to equality

relationship between SDO/authoritarianism & political orientation

SDO & authoritarianism used to justify conservative beliefs; prejudiced people use conservative beliefs to justify prejudice; conservative place more weight on individualism; personal value positions create correlation in conservatism & prejudice; conservatives more likely to see people as responsible for negative outcomes they experience

depiction

how members of different groups are portrayed in media

representation

how often do members of different groups appear in media

linguistic intergroup bias

people's descriptions of ingroup & outgroup behaviors vary in their level of abstraction

abstract

positive descriptions of ingroup/negative descriptions of outgroup

concrete

negative descriptions of outgroup/positive descriptions of ingroup

warmth

how warm/friendly we think outgroup members are;  how much we like the outgroup; based on perceived competition; more competition = less friendly

competence

how competent we think the outgroup members are; how much we respect the outgroup; based on outgroup social status; lower social status = less competent

high warmth/high competence

admiration, whites

high warmth/low competence

Pity, housewives

low warmth/high competence

envy, jews

low warmth/low competence

contempt, welfare

Cotrell Richards & Nichols

prejudice takes form of specific emotions; how much we like an outgroup depends on whether or not we see them as competing with us for resources; how much we respect an outgroup depends on their social status; our relationship to them affects how we see them; how we see them affects how we feel about them; how we feel about them affects how we treat them

stigma

an identity as a member of a minority group within a society; effects of prejudice due in part to stigma associated with group membership

stereotype threat

state of discomfort resulting from the fear that your actions will confirm self-relevant stereotype

conditions under which stereotype threat is likely to occur

awareness of membership in stereotyped group; situation in which stereotype could be confirmed/disconfirmed

Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev study 1 results

significant interaction of sex composition & test type: women in minority condition did worse than women in same sex condition but only on math test; aware of minority, performance deficits are function of stereotype-specific content

Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev study 2 results

significant interaction of sex composition & participant sex: women in minority condition were less accurate than women in same sex condition; no differences between men in minority & same sex conditions; women in mixed sex majority condition did better than women in minority condition, but worse than women in same sex condition; mere presence of men is sufficient to cue stereotype threat effects

symbolic racism

relies on race as an abstract; justified on moral grounds; expressed indirectly

aversive racism

actively endorse principles of racial equality; prioritize being low in prejudice; supports initiatives that will assist racial outgroups; interactions with racial outgroup elicit negative effect; effects of aversive racism on high status minority group memebers

Dovido & Gaertner results - racial attitudes

higher level of reported prejudice in earlier sample, self-reported prejudice decreased over time

Dovido & Gaertner results - hiring decisions

Ps equally likely to recommend strongly qualified black & white candidates; when candidate qualifications were ambiguous, Ps recommended white more than black

hostile sexism

characterized by endorsement of negative stereotypic traits; women as overly emotional, weak, deceptive; men as violent, unemotional, & crude

benevolent sexism

characterized by endorsement of positive stereotypic traits; women as nurturing & virtuous; men as strong, brave, & hardworking

role of prescriptive norms in sexism

endorsing them facilitate sexism; seeing others deviate from them also facilitates sexism

Becker & Wright- exposure to hostile sexism

made gender relations feel less fair; decreased perceived advantages to being a woman; made women feel less happy & more angry; these in turn made women want collective action more

Becker & Wright - exposure to benevolent sexism

made gender relations feel more fair; increased perceived advantages to being a woman; these in turn made women want collective action less

relationship between heterosexism & sexism

* deviation from gender norms often interpreted as evidence of non-heterosexual orientations


* non-heterosexual orientation perceived as violation of gender norms;
* sexual orientation is tied to masculinity/femininity

Szymanski & Heinrichs-Beck

for non-heterosexual women, heterosexism & sexism have an additive effect on distress; relationship between heterosexism & distress is a function of maladaptive coping styles

experience of prejudice among bisexuals

excluded from homosexual & heterosexual groups; seen as taking advantage of heterosexual privileges; perceived as confused, & not viewed positively

factor that motivates hate group membership - affiliation

belonging, community; provide sense of belonging that individual cannot find elsewhere

factor that motivates hate group membership - personal meaning & identity

feeling that life has significance & purpose; social identity beliefs

factor that motivates hate group membership - realistic & symbolic conflict

economic & cultural change can elicit feelings of resentment; relative deprivation

socialization into hate groups

formal & informal education, participation in rituals, isolating members from opposing viewpoints; face-to-face indoctrination most effective method

internal motivation

based on conscious desire to be a less prejudiced person; beliefs & standards more likely to be fully integrated into self-concept; being less prejudiced for its own sake

external motivation

concerns about appearance & social approval; not wanting to look/appear prejudiced; beliefs & standards acted upon out of external pressure