BBH 101 Exam 1

PSU

Humoral Theory

belief that certain liquids in the body must be in balance

cholera

disease that causes severe diarrhea and vomiting, which can lead to dehydration, shock, and death

Reductionism

an approach to science based on the philosophy that we can understand a more complex system by first understanding the individual components of that system

John Snow

studied patterns of cholera outbreak in London and identified a public water pump as the source

Semmelweis

discovered that childbed fever was caused by doctors not washing their hands

Cell Theory

organisms are made up of cells

Louis Pasteur

examined porridge by leaving one container open and the other sealed; the one unsealed grew mold

Edward Jenner

developed the 1st vaccine from theory that cowpox prevents smallpox; exposed a little boy to the vaccine then to smallpox and he did not get smallpox

Alexander Flemming

discovered antibacterial effects of penicillin

Biomedical Model

suggests that illness always has a biological cause

Biobehavioral Perspective

recognizes biological, psychological, and sociocultural focuses in determining an individual's health and vulnerability to disease

Framingham Heart Study

used the biobehavioral perspective to study risk factors of cardiovascular disease; helped us understand that smoking, cholesterol, blood pressure, obesity, etc can cause it

Warren and Marshall

used the biomedical model to prove that H. pylori is a cause of peptic ulcers

Cognitive Bias

patterns of judgement that cause us to make illogical inferences

Scientific Method

observe, hypothesize, predict, test

Theory

a hypothesis that has been tested over and over again

sample

portion of the population of interest being studied in an experiment

p-value

tells us what the probability is of obtaining our result if there really is no relationship between the variable we are interested in (

Importance of Replication

experiments must be replicated to avoid experimenter's bias and confounds

Causality

relationship between two events such that one is understood to be a consequence of the other

Correlation

Provides a measure between two variables; Does not imply causation

Hypothesized relationship

A causes B

Reverse Causation

B causes A

Bidirectional

A causes B and B causes A (affect each other)

Common Causal Variable

C causes A and B

Coincidence

relationship is caused by chance

Exposure

causes an outcome

Outcome

caused from exposure

Prevalence

Number of cases that exist at a certain time

Incidence

Number of cases that occur over a certain period of time

Retrospective

Asking about the past

Prospective

Study that moves forward into the future

Case Study

clinical description of a single patient, usually describing an unusual feature or association between disease and some exposure factor; observational

Case Series

collection of case studies involving a group of patients with similar characteristics; observational

Cross-sectional Study

takes a "point-in-time" picture of health, health behaviors, and other exposure factors; there is no follow-up, measures are only taken once; observational

Case-Control Study

People with the outcome (cases) and without the outcome (controls) are selected and research is done to see how many people in each group have exposure to some variable or interest (retrospective study); Gives an odds ratio; observational

Cohort Studies

people with a certain exposure and without the exposure are selected, then followed for a specified period of time to see if they develop the outcome of interest (Prospective); begin to determine causality; Relative risk

Experimental Designs

the gold standard for identifying causal relationships

Odds Ratio

tells us how much more likely people with the exposure are to have the outcome compared to people without the exposure

Relative Risk (Risk Ratio)

tells us how much higher the risk of the outcome is in the exposed group compared to the unexposed group

Random Assignment

randomly assigning participants to groups in which all participants have an equal chance of getting into an experimental group

Blinding

when the group assignment is concealed

Good Placebo

a substance that has no therapeutic effect, used as a control in testing new drugs; needs to look as close to the actual treatment as possible

Experimental Study

study in which the independent variable's effect is being manipulated by the experimenter

Observational Study

study in which the independent variable is not manipulated by the experimenter

Empirical Research

publication in which someone writes about an experiment they did on a study they held; describes the methodology, how they collected samples, interventions, results, etc.

Literature Review

publication (general) in which someone is reviewing another study

Meta-analysis

publication in which a collection of empirical studies is taken and analyzed as if they were one study; comes up with an overall analysis

Clinical Trials for Prescription Drugs

randomized clinical trial (RCT's) with placebo used to asses effectiveness of prescription drugs

Clinical Trial Phase 1

drug tested for safety

Clinical Trial Phase 2

Seeing if the drug is effective; testing against placebo to see if it works

Clinical Trial Phase 3

Does it work better than what is currently available; After this phase, drug can be approved for sale by the FDA

Clinical Trial Phase 4

Continues on for years; experiments to gather additional information after the drug’s approval

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

conveys messages to and from the CNS

Spinal Cord

receives sensory information from the body and sends it to the brain, and receives motor information from the brain and sends it to the body

Somatic PNS

controls voluntary movement

Autonomic PNS

controls involuntary movement

Sympathetic PNS

part of the autonomic PNS affected by dangerous situations; fight or flight

Parasympathetic PNS

part of the autonomic PNS involved in calming, relaxing activity; rest and digest

Neuron

smaller functional unit of the Nervous System;

Dendrite

part of the neuron that receives information

Soma

part of the neuron that holds the nucelus/DNA

Axon

part of the neuron that carries electrical signal from one side to the other

Synaptic Boutons

part of the neuron that transmits information

Action Potentials

signals that allow electrical signaling within the neuron

Myelin

insulatory material covering an axon in a neuron to keep the axon from decaying, which allows the electrical signal to make it all the way through

Synapses

Where neurons communicate with one another using neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters

how neurons communicate with one another

Path of Neurotransmitters

released from the neuron, cross the synaptic cleft, and interact with receptors on the next neuron

Cerebral Cortex

4 lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal) and the prefrontal cortex

Prefrontal Cortex

hold back impulse; also controls memory

Brainstem

central trunk of the brain; keeps you alive

Cerebellum

controls movement

The Endocrine System

collection of glands that produce hormones

Hypothalamus

controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland; produces the hormones Oxytocin and Vasopressin, which are sent to the pituitary for release; controls homeostasis and drive states

Pituitary Gland

Directly controlled by the hypothalamus

Posterior Pituitary Gland

stores and releases hormones made in the hypothalamus; secretes oxytocin and vasopressin; Neurons carry the oxytocin and vasopressin which is secreted into the bloodstream when prompted by hypothalamus

Vasopressin

Tells the Kindney to conserve water

Oxytocin

Related to brith and contractions

Anterior Pituitary Gland

synthesizes its own hormones; releases many intermediate hormones, including ACTH, beta-endorphin, luteinizing hormone, and growth hormone; Blood vessels carry releasing hormones secrete hormones into the blood

HPA Axis

Hypothalamus secretes releasing hormones (CRH), CRH causes anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH hormone, ACTH travels to adrenal glands which causes them to secrete cortisol.

ACTH

Intermediate hormone

Leptin

produced by fat cells and acts to suppress hunger via the hypothalamus

Ghrelin

produced by fat cells in the GI tract and acts to increase hunger via hypothalamus

Nonspecific Immune Response

includes innate defenses and also several types of white blood cells and proteins

Specific Immune Response

Includes B cells and T cells to kill distinct pathogens; can be active or passive

B Cells

produces antibodies; when activated by antigen, they divide into plasma and memory cells

Plasma Cells

short-lived; produce antibodies; destroy foreign invader

Memory Cells

Creates long-lasting memory of pathogen

B Cell Primary Response

the first time there is an immune response to a pathogen

B Cell Secondary Response

when the immune response has memory of the pathogen; much more effective against the pathogen

Cytotoxic T Cells

trained in the Thymus; seeks out your own cells that have been infected; specific immune response

Helper and Suppressor T Cells

regulate immune system activity

Phagocytes

cells that engulf foreign invaders

Macrophages

Large Phagocytes

Natural Killer Cells

Type of white blood cell that identifies and destroys diseased cells

Interferon

protein that confers short-term resistance to viral infection

complement proteins

assists the immune system in destroying pathogens; activated by immune system of microbes

Inflammatory Response

helps to prevent spread of infection triggered by any damage to tissues