PSY 100 Exam 2

Zygote

fertilized egg cell

Fetus

8 weeks after conception

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

a condition marked by malformations of the face, heart, and ears, nervous system damage including seizures, hyperactivity, and impairments of learning, memory, problem solving, attention, and motor coordination. Is a spectrum disorder that ranges in severity from barely noticeable to sever and depends on the amount and timing of mother’s drinking.

Vision in infancy

tracking infants’ eye movements can give us some insight. by 5 months of age infants have seen plenty but have yet to crawl, crawling helps infants develop sense of depth and distance, do they fear heights? yes and no (depends on caregiver’s facial expression)

hearing in infancy

common infant behavior that is measured in relation to auditory stimuli: sucking on thumb or pacifier. infants suck more vigorously when aroused by certain sounds. infants can distinguish between sounds that occur in any language, but goes away as they begin to learn their primary language

learning/memory in infancy

infants learn to prefer their mothers’ voices (infants suck more when listening to recording of their mothers’ voices as opposed to other women’s). similar findings for increased infant heart rate in response to familiar nursery rhymes and melodies

habituation

decreased response to a repeated stimulus

dishabituation

change in a stimulus increases a previously habituated response

piaget’s stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations

sensorimotor stage

from birth until 2 years, behavior is mostly simple motor responses to sensory stimuli

preoperational stage

from 2-7 years, child lacks reversible mental processes (do not understand how their mother has a mother), children has difficulty distinguishing between appearance and reality (white ball behind a blue filter)

concrete operational stage

from 7-11 years, children perform mental operations on concrete objects but still have trouble with abstract or hypothetical ideas

formal operational stage

11 years and up, adolescents develop logical deductive reasoning and systematic planning (think hypothetically about the future, compare reality vs ideals, mentally manipulate the world, critique the reasoning of others, debate philosophical matters)

formal operational thought

abstract, idealistic, logical

object performance

the idea that objects continue to exist even when we do not see or hear them, other evidence has suggested that infants do have object performance (infants stare longer at “impossible” events)

rouge test

sense of self/self-recognition. rouge test is used to figure out whether young children recognize themselves

egocentrism

a child sees the world as centered around themselves; cannot easily take another person’s perspective

theory of mind

understanding that other people have minds, too, and that each person knows some things that other people don’t know

false-belief test

tests whether a child understands that others can have false beliefs about the world

conservation

understanding that objects conserve such properties as number, length, volume, area, and mass after changes in the shape/arrangement of objects

Piaget vs Vygotsky

focused on children out of context vs education matters

zone of proximal development

distance between what a child can do alone and what is possible with help

erikson’s description of human development

divides human life span into 8 periods

infancy

trust vs mistrust, is my social world predictable and supportive

early childhood

autonomy vs shame and doubt, can I do things by myself or must I always rely on others

preschool

initiative vs guilt, am I good or bad

school age

industry vs inferiority, am I successful or worthless

adolescence

identity vs role confusion, who am I

young adulthood

intimacy vs isolation, shall I share my life with another person or live alone

middle adulthood

generativity vs stagnation, will I succeed in my life, both as a parent and as a worker

maturity

ego integrity vs despair, have I lived a full life or have I failed

attachment

a feeling or closeness toward another person. Bowlby: healthy childhood attachments lead to healthy adult attachments

secure attachment

greet parents with positive emotions, child is upset when caregiver leaves but not distraught, most common attachment style

ambivalent attachment

wary of strangers, also called anxious attachment, child is clingy when caregiver is present, child is distraught when caregiver leaves

avoidant attachment

may avoid parents

disordered attachment

confusion or apprehension

strange situation procedure

a test of attachment developed by Ainsworth, attachment styles differ based on culture

still-face paradigm

another way of testing attachment, infants who continue looking at caregiver with little sign of distress are likely to be securely attached at 1 year of age and beyond

social development in adolescence

with puberty, comes the onset of sexual interest in peers, the experience of adolescence is culturally dependent, to some extent, time of “storm and stress” for many

personal fable

a person’s conviction that they are special/unique, and that life’s difficulties/problems won’t impact them the same as they do for others, leads to both optimism and dangerous risk-taking

Gender roles

the different activities that society expects of males and females. constrain people’s choices

gender socialization

process by which people learn the norms, rules, and information associated with identifying as male vs. female.

gender sterotypes

descriptive and perspective, ex: males are more adventurous, assertive, aggressive, and independent. females are more sensitive, gentle, dependent, emotional

sex-typing

cultural transmission of ideas about gender through child rearing, media, school, etc. impacts core gender identity. ex: strangers treat newborns differently based on the color of their clothing

birth order and family size

first born children are achievement-oriented, last-born children are rebellious and creative

warmth vs control

Low control and low warmth= neglectful

low control and high warmth= permissive

high control and low warmth= authoritative

high control and high warmth= authoritarian

authoritative

self-reliant, cooperative, successful

authoritarian

law-abiding, distrustful, not very independet

permissive

socially irresponsible

indifferent

impulsive, indisciplined

behaviorism

the position that psychology should concern itself only with what people and other animals so, and the circumstances in which they do it

3 major types of behavioral learning

classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational conditioning

stimulus-response psychology

attempt to explain behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response

unconditioned relfexes

automatic connections between a stimulus and a response.

ex stimulus: food.

ex response: secretive digestive tissues

classical conditioning

process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli-a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response

UCS

unconditioned stimulus: an event that automatically elicits an unconditioned response

UCR

unconditioned response: the action that the unconditioned stimulus elicits

CS

conditioned stimulus: a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the UCS, triggers a conditioned response

CR

conditioned response: whatever response the conditioned stimulus elicits as a result of the conditioning (training) procedure

acquisition

a process that establishes or strengthens a conditioned response

extinction

when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, the CR decreases

spontaneous recovery

a temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay

stimulus generalization

extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli

discrimination

different responses to stimuli that predict different outcomes

learning curve

a graph of the changes in behavior that occur over the course of learning

operant conditioning

process of changing behavior by providing a reinforcer after the response

reinforcers

the process of increasing the future probability of the most recent response

punishments

decrease the probability of a response

positive reinforcement

introducing a reinforcing stimulus following a specific behavior

negative reinforcement

strengthen a behavior that avoids or removes a negative outcome

positive punishment

attempt to decrease undesirable behavior by introducing an unfavorable outcome

negative punishment

decrease undesirable behavior by removing a favorable outcome

primary reinforcement/punishment

reinforcing/punishing because of its own properties

secondary reinforcement/punishment

reinforcing/punishing because of its association with something else

extinction

occurs if responses stop producing reinforcements

stimulus generalization

the more similar a new stimulus is to the original reinforced stimulus is to the original reinforced stimulus, the more likely is the same response

discrimination

a response to one stimulus but not another

discriminative stimulus

a stimulus that indicated which response is appropriate or inappropriate

skinner box

operant conditioning chamber, rat will press lever for food

shaping

establishing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations to it

chaining

reinforce each behavior with the opportunity to engage in the next one

schedules of reinforcement

continuous vs. intermittent

continuous

reinforcement for every response of the correct type, uncommon in the real world

fixed ratio

reinforcement following completion of a specific number of responses, fruit pickers who get paid by the bushel

variable ratio

reinforcement for an unpredictable number of responses that varies around a mean value, gambling

fixed interval

reinforcement for the first response that follows a given delay since the previous reinforcement, checking your mailbox

variable interval

reinforcement for the first response that follows an unpredictable delay since the previous reinforcement, checking facebook

social learning

we learn about many behaviors by observing the behaviors of others

bobo doll experiment

we model our behavior after others, we imitate others

vicarious reinforcement/punishment

substituting someone else’s experience of reward/punishment for your own

self-efficacy

the belief of being able to preform a task successfully, can be developed via modeling

self-reinforcement/punishment

we socially learn how to reinforce and punish ourselves

memory

the retention of information. includes skills, facts that never change, facts that seldom change, facts that frequently change, experiences, trivia

ebbinghaus

for 6 years he memorized thousands of lists of nonsense syllables to measure how many repetitions it took to memorize lists of different lengths

free recall

to produce a response, ex: essay tests or short answer tests. always underestimates the amount of info that you actually know

cued recall

receive significant hints about the material, ex: try to name all of the children who were in your 2nd grade class and use the picture as a reference

recognition

choose the correct item among several options, people typically recognize more items than they can recall

savings

also called relearning, relearning is faster than learning something for the first time

explicit memory

someone who states an answer regards it as a product of memory, ex: free recall, cued recall, recognition, and savings

implicit memory

an experience influences what you say/do, even though you might not be aware of the influence