Psychology

Independent Variable (IV)

the factor the researcher manipulates in an experiment

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured by the researcher.

internal validity

the extent to which an experiment shows convincingly that changes in behavior are a function of the independent variable and not the result of uncontrolled or unknown variables.

external validity

extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

Extraneous variable (EV)

Any variable other than the IV that could cause a change in the DV and thus alter the results. These can include: Individual participant differences, Placebo effect, experimenter effects, order effects, use of non-standardised procedures

Situational extraneous variable

Any environmental extraneous variables.

Participant extraneous variables

A type of extraneous variable specific to the participant of the investigation (something from the participant effecting them eg. dyslexia, thus difficult to read)

Reliability

the extent to which a study can be repeated using a standardized procedure and gain consistent results.

ecological validity

The extent to which a study's findings can be generalized beyond the environment of the research. This is a type of external validity.

demand characteristics

the aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think researchers want or expect

laboratory experiment

Experiment in which conditions are highly controlled in an artificial environment, typically a lab. IV is manipulated

field experiment

an experiment conducted in the participants' natural environment. IV is manipulated.

natural experiment

An experiment in which the IV will occur whether or not the experiment is conducted (eg. in an experiment about stress caused by IGCSE exams, the exams will happen whether or not the research was going to take place)

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables

positive correlation

both variables move in the same direction

negative correlation

variables move in opposite directions

difference between experiment and correlation

experiments establish a cause and effect, but correlation investigates a link or relationship between the co-variables.

Positives and negatives of laboratory experiments

+ high control over extraneous variables which leads to greater accuracy (high internal validity)
+ easy to replicate (high reliability)
- demand characteristics
- low ecological validity

positives and negatives of field experiments

+ reduced likelihood of demand characteristics
+ participants' behavior is likely to be natural
+ high ecological validity
- difficult to replicate (low reliability)
- low internal validity, difficult to control extraneous variables

positives and negatives of natural experiments

+ participants' behaviour is likely to be natural
- difficult to replicate (low reliability)
- demand characteristics and ecological and internal validity dependent on environment's level of artificiality

Why can you not establish a cause/effect relationship in correlational research?

Correlational research does not manipulate variables, it measures them. It is difficult to control extraneous variables thus it has low internal validity, thus we cannot establish a cause/effect relationship. This is a limitation.

What is meant by the term evaluate?

To discuss strengths and limitations

Types of Observational Research

-controlled v naturalistic
-participant v non-participant
-covert v overt

How can you determine if the observational research is controlled or naturalistic?

This is determined by the environment.

How can you determine if the observational research is participant or non-participant?

If the observer participates in the research with participants or not.

How can you determine if the observational research is covert or overt?

This is determined by participant awareness.

Strengths and limitations of observational research

+High inter-rater reliability
+High ecological validity if observation conducted in natural environment
+Covert observations less prone to demand characteristics
-If observing pre-recorded footage could miss subtle behaviour
-Observer bias
-Covert observations could cause ethical issues if not consented for

inter-rater reliability

when more than one observer creates codes behaviour and their results are compared to check for agreement

Observer bias

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

Interviews

person-to-person conversations for the purpose of gathering information directly, self-reported by participant, to find out their beliefs, opinions and attitudes

Questionnaires

self-administered, written sets of questions to be answered by lots of people

Types of Interviews

structured, semi-structured, unstructured

open-ended questions

questions that respondents answer in their own words

closed-ended questions

questions that are followed by a list of possible answers to be selected by the respondent

social desirability

the tendency of participants to try to give answers that reflect well upon them

Strengths and limitations of interviews

+Structured interview answers can be compared and analyzed for trends because all ppts. are asked same questions
+Unstructured/semi structured interviews can allow ppts. to go more in depth with their response and ask questions based on response to gain fuller understanding of ppts. behavior
-Prone to social desirability
-Unstructured interviews have low reliability

Strengths and limitations of questionnaires

+Inexpensive to conduct
+Can be sent to many people
+ Deemed more ethical as ppts. feel less pressure to complete research , thus less undue stress or harm.
- Prone to social desirability
- If include open-ended questions, can be hard to analyze/interpret

Conformity

When an individual changes their beliefs and/or their behaviour due to real or imagined group pressure

Compliance

Public but not private change. Explained by Normative Social Influence, conform because they want to fit in.

Indentification

Temporary public and private change, when group membership is desirable. Short term. Normative Social Influence (NSI)

Internalisation

Public and private change because we are unsure of how to act. Explained through Informational Social Influence (ISI), have a desire to be right.

case studies

A research method that focuses on the study of one person or a small group of people such as a school class or social group. Investigates qualitive and quantative data.

Locus of control

The extent to which we believe we have control over our behaviour/life

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own behavior. More likely to be independent and not conform.

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your behavior. Less likely to be independent and more likely to conform

group size

The more people there are, the higher the conformity rates. However this is to a certain limit and eventually plateaus.

unanimaty

The more unanimous a group is the higher the conformity.

task difficulty

The more difficult a task the higher the levels of conformity, as the answer is unclear and people feel unsure (internalisation/ISI)

Asch’s study (conformity)

Involved a fake test to see which lines matched. Some confederates who were in on the study would give an incorrect answer, then the real ppt would give an answer after them and one more confederate would give an incorrect answer after the ppt. This was to see if the ppt would conform and give the same (incorrect) answers as the confederates. Asch also repeated this study multiple times to see how different factors impacted conformity (e.g. made task more difficult, made only one confederate give a wrong answer \[tests unanimity\] and changed the amount of people in the group with the ppt). Results are summarised in other flashcards about situational factors impacting conformity.

Obedience

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands from someone in a position of perceived authority

authoritatiran personality

Individuals with this personality are highly obedient to authority figures due to high levels of respect to people superior to them.

authoritarian traits

-Rigid adherence to conventional values
-Uncritical acceptance of authority
-Black and white thinking
-Believes in justice
-Not flexible thinking, very set and rigid
-Intolerance and aggression toward those below them

Milgrim’s study

This study involved a ppt, researcher and confederate. The confederate would sit in another room and the ppt would have to ask them questions. If the confederate got them wrong, the researcher told the ppt to deliver an electric shock. The ppt was informed the shock would go from 15 volts to 450 (lethal). The confederate was not actually shocked but would pretend to scream and, if the ppt continued the experiment, would eventually stop answering the questions as if they were “dead”. This study was performed at Yale. The purpose of this study was to investigate obedience of authority. It was found that 65% of ppts obeyed the researcher.

Situational factors affecting conformity

Size of majority, unanimity of majority, task difficulty

dispositional factors affecting conformity

Locus of control

Situational factors affecting obedience

Proximity (of victim or researcher)
Location
Uniform

dispositional factors affecting obedience

authoritarian personality

Deindividuation

Individual loss of identity + sense of social responsibility due to being surrounded by a crowd of people

Prosocial

Behaviour seen as desirable by society, helping, kind, cooperative, peaceful ect.

anti-social

Behaviour against social norms. Often deemed unhelpful, destructive and sometimes even aggressive.

social norms

Behaviors expected within a certain society.

Bystander apathy (bystander effect)

Failing to help others in need because of diffusion of responsibility in the presence of a group (believing someone else will help them)

bystander intervention

When an individual notices another individual/group in need and chooses to help them due to empathy for their situation.

Personal factors affecting bystanderism

-Empathy
-Mood
-Competence (ability to help)

Situational factors affecting bystanderism

-Diffusion of responsibility
-Cost of helping
-Group size

Strengths & weaknesses of Haney, Banks & Zimbardo

Strengths
-Practical applications to real world (Abu Ghraib)
Weaknesses
-Ethical issues
-Gender bias
-Culture bias

What is the acronym for evaluating a case study?

G-generalisability (external val.) population (gender, culture) or environment (ecological val.)
R-reliability
A-applications to real world
V-validity (internal)
E-ethics

Society

A community of people living in the same general area

Social issue

A social problem or conflict that affects a community of people.

blind obedience

Where an individual follows a direct order given by an authority figure without question. This tends to be associated with a negative outcome.

Which factors prevent blind obedience?

-Social support
-Familiarity with situation
-Trust
-Consequences

Strengths & weaknesses of Pilivian et al.

Strengths:
-Ecological validity (realistic environment)
-Demand characteristics (ppts didn't know they were in a study)
Weaknesses
-Culture bias (only in US, Western culture)
-Unethical (ppts. didn't consent)
-Low internal validity (low control over extraneous variables)

Does culture influence conformity?

Yes. Collectivist cultures show higher levels of conformity than individualistic ones they have more respect for those around them and want to be part of the group.

Does culture influence bystander behaviour?

Yes. Ind. cultures are less likely to form social bonds and work together to achieve community goals due to valued independence therefore they are less likely to show bystander intervention.

Does culture influence obedience?

Yes. Research has shown that ind. cultures are less obedient than col. cultures, possibly because in col. cultures, following an authority figure's orders is a way of maintaining social harmony.

Culture

Culture is the human-made traditions, customs and social behaviour of a particular set of people or society

Individualistic cultures

A culture that emphasizes independence, autonomy and individuality.

Collectivistic cultures

cultures that emphasize membership, interdependence and cooperation.

Describe the Piliavin et. al. case study (Procedure & Aim)

Aim was to investigate the effect the type of victim would have on the speed and frequency with which someone would respond to aid them in an emergency.
Procedure: The type of victim was portrayed as either drunk or ill (through use of a cane).

Describe Piliavin's results/conclusion

Bystanders are more likely to offer immediate help for an ill victim than a drunk victim. The 'costs' (embarrassment, aggression) are higher for helping a drunk victim. Men are more likely to help a male victim than women.
Data:
Found that the drunk victims were helped spontaneously in 19/38 (50%) of trials (before 70 seconds)

Describe Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment. (Procedure & Aim)

In the experiment 24 normal healthy students were randomly assigned the roles of guards and prisoners in a mock prison where Zimbardo observed their behaviour but also acted as the prison warden. the aim of the study was to see how readily people would conform to the social roles assigned to them.

they study was meant to last for 2 weeks but was stopped after only 6 days due to the guards becoming increasingly cruel as the experiment continued.

Findings of Zimbardo's study

>-1 prisoner was released on the first day because he showed signs of psychological disturbance.
\-Another 2 were released on the 4th day

* The brutality of the guards showed that it is not the sadistic personalities (as all the participants were checked to be normal and healthy before the experiment) but rather the prison environment that forces people to behave in such manner.
* Found that people given military style guard uniforms changed their behaviour to act with more power and control than without the uniforms through deindividuation
* Guard aggression increased when they were away from surveillance.

behaviour of crowds

People in large crowds are more likely to obey an authority figure or conform due to deindividuation

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

storage

the retention of information in our memory system

Retrieval

The recall of previously stored memories

Duration

the length of time information can be stored in short-term and long-term memory

Capacity

the amount of information that can be stored in the memory system.

Peterson & Peterson Aim

Aim(s)

Peterson and Peterson first aimed to see if retention of items was affected by interference during recall intervals. In the second part of their study, they investigated whether silent or vocal rehearsal would affect recall of items.

Peterson & Peterson Pt 1 Procedure

Sample: 24 students from an introductory psychology course at Indiana University, USA were selected. As part of their course, the students were required to take part in research experiments.

Each participant was given a standardised set of instructions which explained the process of the experiment. This included explaining the ‘black box’ in front of them and what to do at each of the light signals:

·         The green light meant that the trial was ready to begin.

·         The red light meant to stop counting and recall the trigram (three-letter consonant).

Participants had two practice trials in order to ensure the instructions had been fully understood.

At the beginning of each trial, the experimenter would spell out a trigram followed by a number from which the participant had to count backwards in either 3’s or 4’s, e.g. CHJ 506. In half the trials, participants counted backwards in 3’s (e.g. 506, 503, 500 and so on) and in the other half they counted backwards in 4’s (e.g. 312, 308, 304 and so on).

Participants counted backwards in time with the ticking of a metronome. This was a task that would minimise rehearsal behaviour between presentation and recall. Once the red light came on, the participant had to immediately verbally recall the trigram, e.g. CHJ.

The next trial would then begin 15 seconds later, signalled by the green light. The responses given by the participant during their 15 second interval were recorded.

Each participant was tested eight times at each of the following six recall intervals: 3 seconds, 6 seconds, 9 seconds, 12 seconds, 15 seconds and 18 seconds.

Peterson & Peterson Pt 1 results + conclusions

Results(s)

Results indicated that participants took an average of 2.83 seconds to begin their recall of the trigram once their counting had stopped.

There was a significant difference between accurate recall following the first blocks (shorter interference intervals) than the last blocks (longer interference intervals).

With a 3 second interference interval, participants could recall just over 50% of the trigrams accurately. This dropped to less than 10% from 15 seconds onwards.

Conclusion

Information decays rapidly from short-term memory, with accurate recall of the trigrams decreasing rapidly over the duration of 18 seconds, and very little accuracy shown in recall in 15 second and 18 second trials. Therefore, short-term memory has limited duration.

Peterson & Peterson Pt 2 Procedure

Sample: 48 students from the same university programme.

In this procedure, half of the participants were instructed to repeat the stimulus of a three-letter trigram aloud in time with a metronome. This group was the ‘vocal’ condition. They were then stopped by the experimenter and instructed to count backwards from a number.

The other half of the participants were not instructed to repeat the stimulus trigram aloud, but they were given interval time before being asked to count backwards from a number. This group was the ‘silent’ group.

Both groups were tested on various rehearsal interval periods of immediate recall, 1 second and 3 seconds. This was completed for three interference conditions of counting backwards for 3 seconds, 9 seconds and 18 seconds.

Peterson & Peterson Pt 2 results + conclusions

Results(s)

Participant recall in the ‘vocal’ group improved with repetition, with longer repetition leading to more accurate recall. Participant recall in the ‘silent’ group did not improve with longer repetition.

Conclusion

Only in conditions where the repetition was vocal and controlled did accuracy of recall improve.

Peterson & Peterson overall conclusion

The rate of forgetting from short-term memory depends on the amount of rehearsal undertaken.

Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts Aim

aim: to investigate whether people's memory for a story is affected by previous knowledge (schemas) and the extent to which memory is reconstructive

Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts Procedure

procedure: 20 british participants asked to hear a native american story (War of the Ghosts) and reproduce it after a short time, and then again over months/years

Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts Results

results:
-participants remembered the main idea of the story but changed unfamiliar elements to make sense of it (e.g. changing names, changing 'canoe' to boat)
-the story become shorter after each reproduction

Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts Conclusions

conclusions: -accuracy in reproduction of the story is an exception, not the norm -details are altered to fit the participants own tendencies (e.g. some changed ‘canoe’ to boat)

\-with repeated reconstruction, simplification/omission of detail etc does not occur as much, but with infrequent reproduction it can occur indefinitely.

Multi-Store Model of Memory Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

The memory model that visualises memory as a system consisting of multiple memory stores through which a stream of data flows for processing.
env. stimuli\---\>sensory register (can decay)\---\>STM (decay or retrieval can happen here)-rehearsal-\>LTM (can decay here)

Attention

When an individual consciously notices something, shifting it from sensory register to STM