hist 2 exam

Readings, 570-609, 615-19 621-626, 629-32 641-646, 652-656, 660-688 694-699, 699-718, 722-726

Mercantilism

* economic nationalism for the purpose of building a wealthy and powerful state.
* based on the idea that a nation's wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and limiting imports.
* system of political economy that sought to enrich the country by restraining imports and encouraging exports.
* First seen in Europe during the 1500s
* replaced the feudal economic system in Western Europe.

Wealth of Nations, 1776

Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher by trade, wrote the book to describe the industrialized capitalist system that was upending the mercantilist system

Social Contract

1. an __implicit__ agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, for example by __sacrificing__ some individual freedom for state protection. Theories of a social contract became popular in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries among __theorists__ such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, as a means of explaining the origin of government and the obligations of subjects.

Seven Years War

a conflict between France and Great Britain that began in 1754 as a dispute over North American land claims in the region around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. This conflict eventually spread into other parts of world, including Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Parliament

a formal conference for the discussion of public affairs. specifically : a council of state in early medieval England. : an assemblage of the nobility, clergy, and commons called together by the British sovereign as the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom.

“Declaration of Independence”

At the Second Continental Congress during the summer of 1776, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia was charged with drafting a formal statement justifying the 13 North American colonies' break with Great Britain.

Estates General

the legislative body in France until 1789, representing the three estates of the realm (i.e., the __clergy__, the __nobility__, and the commons).

National Assembly

* King Louis XVI, aware of the injustices of the French tax policy, tried to reform the tax code to make it more fair, but was repeatedly thwarted by the overrepresented nobles and clergy. This angered the Third Estate, which refused to vote in the Estates General, and formed instead the National Assembly


* a government based on enlightened ideals through their establishment of the Declaration of the Rights of Man, with its proclamations of men being born with equal rights with the government existing to protect those rights, and that the people being the source of political power.

“Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen”

* In its preamble and its 17 articles, it sets out the “natural and inalienable” rights, which are freedom, ownership, security, resistance to oppression; it recognizes equality before the law and the justice system, and affirms the principle of separation of powers
* freedom of religion, freedom of the press, no taxation without representation, elimination of excessive punishments, and various safeguards against arbitrary administration.

Jacobins

* was a member of the Jacobin Club, a revolutionary political movement that was the most famous political club during the French Revolution (1789–1799). The club got its name from meeting at the Dominican rue Saint-Honoré Monastery of the Jacobins.
* saw themselves as constitutionalists, dedicated to the Rights of Man and in particular, to the declaration's principle of "preservation of the natural rights of liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression"

Reign of Terror

* a dark and violent period of time during the French Revolution. Radicals took control of the revolutionary government. They arrested and executed anyone who they suspected might not be loyal to the revolution. The French Revolution had begun four years earlier with the Storming of the Bastille.
* a climactic period of state-sanctioned violence during the French Revolution (1789-99), which saw the public executions and mass killings of thousands of counter-revolutionary 'suspects' between September 1793 and July 1794.

Guillotine

a machine with a heavy blade sliding __vertically__ in __grooves__, used for __beheading__ people.

Napoleon Bonaparte

played a key role in the French Revolution (1789–99), served as first consul of France (1799–1804), and was the first emperor of France (1804–14/15).

Code Napoleon

made the authority of men over their families stronger, deprived women of any individual rights, and reduced the rights of illegitimate children. All male citizens were also granted equal rights under the law and the right to religious dissent, but colonial slavery was reintroduced.

Congress of Vienna

constituted a major turning point – the first genuine attempt to forge an 'international order', to bring long-term peace to a troubled Europe, and to control the pace of political change through international supervision and intervention.

Saint Domingue/Haiti

Toissant L’Ouverture

* displayed military and political acumen that helped transform the fledgling slave rebellion into a revolutionary movement.
* now known as the "Father of Haiti".
* was born enslaved on the French colony of Saint-Domingue, now known as Haiti.
* first fought against the French, then for them, and then finally against France again for the cause of Haitian independence

Simon Bolivar

became the most powerful leader in South America, nicknamed “El Libertador” (the liberator) for helping nations become independent from Spain.

Free trade

the unrestricted purchase and sale of goods and services between countries without the imposition of constraints such as tariffs, duties, and quotas.

Adam Smith

* most famous for his 1776 book, "The Wealth of Nations."
* first philosophers of his time to declare that wealth is created through productive labor, and that self-interest motivates people to put their resources to the best use. He argued that profits flowed from capital investments, and that capital gets directed to where the most profit can be made.

Laissez faire

__abstention__ by governments from interfering in the __workings__ of the free market.

Abolition

the action or an act of __abolishing__ a system, practice, or institution.

William Wilberforce

After stopping the trading of slaves, he devoted himself for the next 25 years to ending the institution of slavery itself. Three days before his death in 1833, he heard that the House of Commons had passed a law emancipating all slaves in the British Empire.

Olaudah Equiano

* He was employed by the Sierra Leone resettlement project, which helped better the livelihoods of former slaves. He also formed an abolitionist group called “Sons of Africa,” which consisted of himself and 11 other men who campaigned for the freedom of slaves.

Aurangzeb

the sixth emperor of the Mughal Empire, ruling from July 1658 until his death in 1707. Under his emperorship, the Mughals reached their greatest extent with their territory spanning nearly the entirety of Indian subcontinent.

Nadir Shah

the founder of the Afsharid dynasty of Iran and one of the most powerful rulers in Iranian history, ruling as shah of Iran from 1736 to 1747, when he was assassinated during a rebellion.

Sack of Delhi

The hard-fought recapture of Delhi by the British army was a decisive moment in the suppression of the 1857–58 Indian Mutiny against British rule. It extinguished Indian dreams of recreating the rule of the Mughal Empire.

Capitulations in the Ottoman Empire

grants made by successive Sultans to Christian nations, conferring rights and privileges in favour of their subjects resident or trading in the Ottoman dominions, following the policy towards European states of the Byzantine Empire.

Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti

* a Somali-Egyptian scholar and historian who spent most of his life in Cairo.
* Wrote a history of Egypt

Wahhabism

* Saudi Arabia's dominant faith. It is an austere form of Islam that insists on a literal interpretation of the Koran. Strict Wahhabis believe that all those who don't practice their form of Islam are heathens and enemies.
* advocates a purification of Islam, rejects Islamic theology and philosophy developed after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, and calls for strict adherence to the letter of the Koran and hadith \[the recorded sayings and practices of the Prophet\].

Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab

an Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, activist, religious leader, and reformer from Najd in central Arabia, considered as the eponymous founder of the Wahhabi movement.

House of Saud

the ruling royal family of Saudi Arabia. It is composed of the descendants of Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the Emirate of Diriyah, known as the First Saudi state, and his brothers

Wahhabi War

The Saudi amir denounced the Ottoman sultan and called into question the validity of his claim to be caliph and guardian of the sanctuaries of the Hejaz. In response, the Ottoman Empire ordered their ambitious vassal, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, to attack the Wahhabi state.

Usman Dan Fodio

was a Fulani scholar who launched a religious war (jihad) in northern Nigeria in 1804 that lasted for six years, the goal of which was to revive and purify Islam, and to encourage less devout Muslims to return to orthodox Islam.

Sokoto Caliphate

* the most powerful economic and political system of the region during the 19th century, and contributed profoundly to the Islamization of Northern Nigeria.


* was conquered by British colonial forces in 1903 and the territory was divided between British, French, and German powers.

Industrial society

a society driven by the use of technology and machinery to enable mass production, supporting a large population with a high capacity for division of labour.

Four field crop rotation

The sequence of four crops (wheat, turnips, barley and clover), included a fodder crop and a grazing crop, allowing livestock to be bred year-round

Industrious revolution

a period in early modern Europe lasting from approximately 1600 to 1800 in which household productivity and consumer demand increased despite the absence of major technological innovations that would mark the later Industrial Revolution.

Spinning Jenny

an early multiple-spindle machine for spinning wool or cotton.

Cotton Gin

***a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds***

Factory Acts

prohibited any child under the age of 9 from working, limited the work week of children age 9 to 13 to 48 hours, and required them to attend school part-time. The law was aimed specifically at cotton mills.

Bourgeoisie

the middle class, typically with reference to its perceived __materialistic__ values or conventional __attitudes__.

Market society

a society in which markets have become a predominant principle of social organisation: “Instead of economy being embedded in social relations, social relations are embedded in the economic system.”

Luddites

a member of any of the bands of English workers who destroyed machinery, especially in cotton and __woolen__ mills, that they believed was threatening their jobs

Utopian socialism

socialism that is achieved through the moral persuasion of capitalists to surrender the means of production peacefully to the people. This belief holds that, through conscience and morals, people could work together in society and live together communally without the need for money or class.

Charles Fourier

a French philosopher, an influential early socialist thinker and one of the founders of utopian socialism.

Robert Owen

He believed that people were not responsible for their actions or outcomes. This is because he believed that human character is formed by conditions outside of the control of the individual. He mainly believed that these character traits were formed in early childhood

New Lanark

instituted a range of radical reforms aimed at improving the efficiency of the business and the moral fibre of its inhabitants, paying for these reforms from the substantial profits of the cotton-spinning business- an early form of social enterprise.

Karl Marx

believed all countries should become capitalist and develop that productive capacity, and then workers would naturally revolt, leading communism whereby the workers would become the dominant social class and collectively control the means of production.

Friedrich Engels

* Known for his collaboration with Karl Marx
* helped define modern communism.

proletariat

workers or __working-class__ people, regarded __collectively__ (often used with reference to Marxism).

Communist Manifesto

creating one class of people would end the problem of continuous class struggles and cycles of revolution between the bourgeois and proletariat classes, which never lead to true reform.

Materialist theory of history

a theory on human society and history that states that thoughts and social institutions develop only as a superstructure founded on an economic base.

Great Exhibition

the first ever international exhibition of manufactured products. It inspired a long succession of international fairs in other cities, including Paris, Dublin, New York, Vienna and Chicago – almost one a year for the rest of the 19th century.

Eiffel Tower

* built to be one the main attractions at the Paris World's Fair in 1889.
* built by Gustave Eiffel for the 1889 Exposition Universelle, which was to celebrate the 100th year anniversary of the French Revolution.

Nation-state

a __sovereign__ state whose citizens or subjects are relatively __homogeneous__ in factors such as language or common __descent__.

Otto von Bismarck

progressive reforms—including universal male suffrage and the establishment of the first welfare state—in order to achieve his goals. He manipulated European rivalries to make Germany a world power, but in doing so laid the groundwork for both World Wars.

Realpolitik

a system of politics or principles based on practical rather than moral or __ideological__ considerations.

Opening of Japan

American Commodore Matthew Perry led his four ships into the harbor at Tokyo Bay, seeking to re-establish for the first time in over 200 years regular trade and discourse between Japan and the western world.

Commodore Matthew Perry

a commodore of the United States Navy who commanded ships in several wars, including the War of 1812 and the Mexican–American War. He played a leading role in the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854

Meiji Restoration

In 1868 the Tokugawa shôgun ("great general"), who ruled Japan in the feudal period, lost his power and the emperor was restored to the supreme position.

Zaibatsu

1. a large Japanese business __conglomerate__.

Sino-Japanese War

the conflict between Japan and China in 1894–95 that marked the emergence of Japan as a major world power and demonstrated the weakness of the Chinese empire. The war grew out of the conflict between the two countries for supremacy in Korea.

Russo-Japanese War

* The war developed from Russia's and Japan's rivalry for dominance in Korea and Manchuria. After the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan acquired the Liaodong Peninsula from China, but European powers forced Japan to return it. China subsequently leased it to Russia. The Russo-Japanese War began when Japan attacked Russian warships at Port Arthur, on the peninsula.
* Japan won a convincing victory over Russia, becoming the first Asian power in modern times to defeat a European power.

Decembrists

* primarily members of the upper classes who had military backgrounds;
* Union of Salvation
* They aimed at the abolishment of serfdom and introduction of constitutional monarchy by means of armed revolt at the time of next emperor's succession to the throne.

Crimean War

started with Russia's invasion of the Turkish Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (now Romania). Britain and France both wanted to prop up the ailing Ottoman Empire and resist Russian expansionism in the Near East.

Great Reforms

Defeat in the Crimean War exposed Russia's lack of development in relation to its European neighbours. These outcomes became the catalyst for long-awaited reforms. 3. The reign of a new tsar, Alexander II, brought with it the emancipation of serfdom.

Tsar

an __emperor__ of Russia before 1917.

Serf

the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism, and similar systems

Trans-Siberian Railroad

The intent was to extend Russian influence into East Asia and to capture global trade from British hands. The railway would allow merchandise and raw materials to be transported from Europe to the Pacific in half the time it took by sea.

Russification

a form of cultural assimilation, Russian colonial policy, in which non-Russians, whether involuntarily or voluntarily, give up their culture and language in favor of the Russian culture and the Russian language.

Manifest Destiny

the idea that the United States is destined—by God, its advocates believed—to expand its dominion and spread democracy and capitalism across the entire North American continent.

California gold rush

brought a flood of workers to California and played an important role in integrating California's economy into that of the eastern United States.

American civil war

started because of uncompromising differences between the free and slave states over the power of the national government to prohibit slavery in the territories that had not yet become states.

Transcontinental Railway

revolutionized travel, connecting areas of the Western United States with the East. Prior to its completion, traveling to the West Coast from the East required months of dangerous overland travel or an arduous trip by boat around the southern tip of South America.

Bessemer process

the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron.

rubber

started in the amazon

Gutta percha

a plastic substance from a Malaysian tree called a percha tree,

Quinine

used to treat malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum.

Cecil Rhodes

an imperialist, businessman and politician who played a dominant role in southern Africa in the late 19th Century, driving the annexation of vast swathes of land. He founded the De Beers diamond firm which until recently controlled the global trade.

Menelik II

he who defeated a European nation – Italy – on the field of battle, to defend Ethiopian independence

Sepoy

derived from the Persian word sepāhī, meaning "infantry soldier", and came into use in the forces of the British East India Company in the eighteenth century.

1857 Mutiny/Sepoy Rebellion

* were unhappy with the pay inequality compared to British soldiers.
* were suspicious that rifle cartridges used animal fats they could not touch as part of their religious beliefs.

British Raj

the region, the rule, and the period, from 1858 to 1947, of the British Empire on the Indian subcontinent.

National Congress Party

one of the national parties in India. The party generally supports Indian nationalism and Gandhian secularism.

Mohandas Gandhi

the leader of the Indian nationalist movement against British rule, and is widely considered the father of his country. His doctrine of non- violent protest to achieve political and social progress has been hugely influential.

Battle of Omdurman

decisive military engagement in which Anglo-Egyptian forces, under Maj. Gen. Herbert Kitchener (later Lord Kitchener), defeated the forces of the Mahdist leader ʿAbd Allāh and thereby won Sudanese territory that the Mahdists had dominated since 1881.

Thin red line

has become an English language figure of speech for any thinly spread military unit holding firm against attack. The phrase has also taken on the metaphorical meaning of the barrier which the relatively limited armed forces of a country present to potential attackers.

Indirect rule

1. a system of government of one nation by another in which the governed people retain certain administrative, legal, and other powers.

Social Darwinism

the theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals.

Civilizing mission

an ever-shifting set of ideas and practices that was used to justify and legitimize the establishment and continuation of overseas colonies, both to subject peoples and to citizens or subjects in the homeland.

Orientalism

1. style, __artefacts__, or traits considered characteristic of the peoples and cultures of Asia.
* the representation of Asia, especially the Middle East, in a __stereotyped__ way that is regarded as __embodying__ a __colonialist__ attitude.

White Man’s Burden

a duty formerly asserted by white people to manage the affairs of nonwhite people whom they believed to be less developed.

Han

The dominant ethnic group in China

Manchu/Qing

was the last of the imperial dynasties of China

Commissioner Lin

appointed in 1839 by the Manchu emperor as the new commissioner to oversee the suppression of the Canton drug trade by the British.

Opium Wars

Between 1839 and 1842, British forces fought a war in China that benefitted drug smugglers. Their subsequent victory in the conflict opened up the lucrative Chinese trade to British merchants.

Treaty of Nanjing

treaty that ended the first Opium War, the first of the unequal treaties between China and foreign imperialist powers. China paid the British an indemnity, ceded the territory of Hong Kong, and agreed to establish a “fair and reasonable” tariff.

Unequal Treaties

because of Great Britain's supremacy in maritime traffic and Hong Kong's unique geographical position of being a fine harbor, Great Britain coveted Hong Kong.

Taiping Rebellion

* radical political and religious upheaval that was probably the most important event in China in the 19th century. It lasted for some 14 years (1850–64), ravaged 17 provinces, took an estimated 20 million lives, and irrevocably altered the Qing dynasty
* It was sparked by the leadership of one man, Hong Xiuquan (pronounced shiou-chuan), from the south of China, who in 1847 failed the imperial examinations for the third time and was delirious for 30 days.