[PRELIMS]PCOG_CARBOHYDRATES
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Last updated 5:38 PM on 2/28/23
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219 Terms
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Carbohydrates
Aldehyde or ketone alcohols containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are generally the same ratios as in water.
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Carbohydrates
They constitute a large proportion of the plant biomass and are responsible, as cellulose for the rigid cellular framework and starch for providing an important food reserve.
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Carbohydrates
Sugars unite with other compounds to
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Glucose
* provides energy for the brain and ½ of energy for muscles and tissues
* immediate energy
* immediate energy
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Glycogen
* stored glucose
* reserve energy
* reserve energy
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2 Broad Groups
1. Sugars
2. Polysaccharides
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Sugars
\[2 Broad Groups\]
\
crystalline, soluble in water and sweet tasting
\
crystalline, soluble in water and sweet tasting
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**SUGARS**
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Trisaccharides
Tetrasaccharides
Disaccharides
Trisaccharides
Tetrasaccharides
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Monosaccharides
\[2 Broad Groups - **SUGARS]**
\
cannot be hydrolyzed into simple sugars
* Trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses
\
cannot be hydrolyzed into simple sugars
* Trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses
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Disaccharides
\[2 Broad Groups - **SUGARS]**
\
2 monosaccarides on hydrolysis
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2 monosaccarides on hydrolysis
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Trisaccharides
\[2 Broad Groups - **SUGARS]**
\
3
\
3
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Tetrasaccharides
\[2 Broad Groups - **SUGARS]**
\
4
\
4
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Polysaccahrides
\[2 Broad Groups\]
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complex and high MW carbs
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complex and high MW carbs
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**Diose**
\[Monosaccharides\]
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Hydroxyacetaldehyde, simplest sugar; does not occur free in nature.
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Hydroxyacetaldehyde, simplest sugar; does not occur free in nature.
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**Triose**
\[Monosaccharides\]
\
glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone
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glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone
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**Tetroses**
\[Monosaccharides\]
\
also not found in free state
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also not found in free state
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**Pentoses**
\[Monosaccharides\]
\
occur in nature, usuall as products of hydrolysis
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occur in nature, usuall as products of hydrolysis
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**Hexoses**
\[Monosaccharides\]
\
most important monosaccharides found in plants
\
most important monosaccharides found in plants
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Monosaccharides
**16 aldohexoses and 8 ketohexose**s, if we consider both alpha and beta forms, we have **48 isomers**
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Monosaccharides only 2 occur in free state in plants:
›D-fructose (levulose)
›D-glucose (dextrose)
›D-glucose (dextrose)
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Glucose
\[Monosaccharides\]
\
Is an Aldohexose – polydroxy alcohol having an aldehyde group
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Is an Aldohexose – polydroxy alcohol having an aldehyde group
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Fructose
\[Monosaccharides\]
\
Ketohexose
\
Ketohexose
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Monosaccharides
Reducing sugars
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Structure of Monosaccharides
\
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Fructose
\[Monosaccharides\]
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Exist in 2 cyclic forms
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Exist in 2 cyclic forms
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Fructopyranose
\[Monosaccharides\]
\
structure of crystalline sugar
\
structure of crystalline sugar
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Furanose
\[Monosaccharides\]
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5 membered ring occur when fructose is present in oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
\
5 membered ring occur when fructose is present in oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
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**Heptoses**
\[Monosaccharides\]
\
phosphate esters of certain heptoses are of vital importance in glucose metabolism of animals and in the photosynthetic process of plants.
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phosphate esters of certain heptoses are of vital importance in glucose metabolism of animals and in the photosynthetic process of plants.
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**Octoses**
\[Monosaccharides\]
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8 carbon sugar was already isolated from crushed avocado pulp.
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8 carbon sugar was already isolated from crushed avocado pulp.
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D-glycero-D-manno-octulose
\[Monosaccharides\]
\
* unusual sugar in octoses
* It is also isolated from the species of the rock-garden plant “Sedum”
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* unusual sugar in octoses
* It is also isolated from the species of the rock-garden plant “Sedum”
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Monosaccharides
all are 6 carbon hexes
\
* 6 carbons
* 12 hydrogens
* 6 oxygens arrangement
* differs accounts for varying sweetness
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* 6 carbons
* 12 hydrogens
* 6 oxygens arrangement
* differs accounts for varying sweetness
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example of Monosaccharides
glucose
fructose
galactose
fructose
galactose
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Glucose
Structure of what kind of Monosaccharides
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Galactose
Structure of what kind of Monosaccharides
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Fructose
Structure of what kind of Monosaccharides
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Disaccharides
also called bioses, trioses
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Disaccharides
theoretically derived from 2, 3 or 4 monosaccharide molecules, respectively, with the elimination of one, two or three molecules of water.
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Disaccharides
one of the commonest plant disaccharide is sucrose, it is formed in photosynthesis by the reaction of UDPG with fructose-6-phosphate.
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**Sucrose**
\[Disaccharides\]
\
* a-D-glucopyranosyl-B-D-fructofuranoside. The only disaccharide that occurs abundantly in the free state in plants.
* Occurs in fruit juices, sugar cane, sugar beet, sap of certain maples
* Upon hydrolysis yields invert sugar(equimolar quantities of glucose and fructose)
* Non reducing sugar
\
* a-D-glucopyranosyl-B-D-fructofuranoside. The only disaccharide that occurs abundantly in the free state in plants.
* Occurs in fruit juices, sugar cane, sugar beet, sap of certain maples
* Upon hydrolysis yields invert sugar(equimolar quantities of glucose and fructose)
* Non reducing sugar
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**Maltose**
\[Disaccharides\]
\
* 4-0-a-D-glucopyranosyl-D-glucopyranose
* Seldomly occuring in free nature
* Produce in large quantities by the hydrolysis of starch during the germination of barley and other grains (diastatic fermentation)
* Reducing sugar, upon hydrolysis yields 2 molecules of glucose.
\
* 4-0-a-D-glucopyranosyl-D-glucopyranose
* Seldomly occuring in free nature
* Produce in large quantities by the hydrolysis of starch during the germination of barley and other grains (diastatic fermentation)
* Reducing sugar, upon hydrolysis yields 2 molecules of glucose.
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Maltose
\[Disaccharides\]
\
A compound of 2 glucose molecules
\
A compound of 2 glucose molecules
![\[Disaccharides\]
\
A compound of 2 glucose molecules](https://knowt-user-attachments.s3.amazonaws.com/ff3092186f64483da3819dcf36de44a2.jpeg)
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Sugars Most Commonly Available in Vegetable Drugs
* Glucose
* Fructose
* Sucrose
* Maltose
* Fructose
* Sucrose
* Maltose
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Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Disaccharides
Sugars Occurring in a Limited Extent in Nature
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Mannose
\[Sugars Occurring in a Limited Extent in Nature - **Monosaccharides]**
\
occuring in mannosans
\
occuring in mannosans
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Galactose
\[Sugars Occurring in a Limited Extent in Nature - **Monosaccharides]**
\
constituent of lactose and raffinose
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constituent of lactose and raffinose
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Trehalose
\[Sugars Occurring in a Limited Extent in Nature - **Disaccharides**\]
\
widely distributed in the fungi
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widely distributed in the fungi
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Lactose
\[Sugars Occurring in a Limited Extent in Nature - **Disaccharides**\]
\
milk sugar, reducing sugar
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milk sugar, reducing sugar
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Trehalose
\[Sugars Occurring in a Limited Extent in Nature - **Disaccharides**\]
\
non reducing sugar
\
non reducing sugar
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Polysaccharides
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Polysaccharides
* By condensation involving sugar phosphates and sugar nucleotides, polysaccharides are derived from monosaccharides in exactly the same manner to the formation of di-, tri- and tetrasaccharides.
* The final product of its hydrolysis are **hexoses or pentoses** or their derivatives.
* Activities exhibited are: immuno-modulating, anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, hypoglycemic and anti-viral properties.
* The final product of its hydrolysis are **hexoses or pentoses** or their derivatives.
* Activities exhibited are: immuno-modulating, anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, hypoglycemic and anti-viral properties.
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**Homoglycan**
\[The polysaccharide may be classified into two broad heads\]
\
The polysaccharide is termed as homoglycan when it contains only one type of monosaccharide unit
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The polysaccharide is termed as homoglycan when it contains only one type of monosaccharide unit
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**Heteroglycan**
\[The polysaccharide may be classified into two broad heads\]
\
The polysaccharide is known as heteroglycan when it involves more than one kind of monosaccharide unit.
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The polysaccharide is known as heteroglycan when it involves more than one kind of monosaccharide unit.
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Polysaccharides - examples
* **Starch**
* **Inulin**
* **Cellulose**
* **Inulin**
* **Cellulose**
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Hexosans
(examples of polysaccharides) these polysaccharides can be usually hydrolyzed to a component hexose and therefore called ____
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**Starch (glucosans)**
\[Polysaccharide\]
\
glucose
\
glucose
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**Inulin (fructosans)**
\[Polysaccharide\]
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fructose
\
fructose
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**Cellulose**
\[Polysaccharide\]
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polysaccharide composed of glucose units joined by B-1,4 linkages, forms the primary cell wall in plants.
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polysaccharide composed of glucose units joined by B-1,4 linkages, forms the primary cell wall in plants.
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**Hemicellulose**
\[Polysaccharide\]
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HMW polysaccharides but are considerably more soluble and more easily hydrolyzed than cellulose
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HMW polysaccharides but are considerably more soluble and more easily hydrolyzed than cellulose
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**Gums and mucilages**
\[Polysaccharide\]
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hydrolysis will yield pentoses
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hydrolysis will yield pentoses
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**Xylan**
\[Polysaccharide\]
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pentosans which occurs in wood of decidous trees
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pentosans which occurs in wood of decidous trees
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Light reactions
\[Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates - Production of Monosaccharides by Photosynthesis\]
\n electromagnetics energy -> chemical potentials
\n electromagnetics energy -> chemical potentials
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Dark reactions
\[Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates - Production of Monosaccharides by Photosynthesis\]
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Utilize energy from light reaction to fix carbon dioxide into sugar.
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Utilize energy from light reaction to fix carbon dioxide into sugar.
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Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates
* Production of sucrose
* Fructose-6-phosphate-🡪glucose-1-phosphate --UTP---> UDP-Glucose
* Fructose-6-phosphate-🡪glucose-1-phosphate --UTP---> UDP-Glucose
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**Sucrose**
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\n Sugar cane – *Saccharum officinarum* (Graminae)
Sugar Beet – *Beta vulgaris* (Chenopodiaceae)
Sugar maple – *Acer saccharum* (Aceraceae)
\n Sugar cane – *Saccharum officinarum* (Graminae)
Sugar Beet – *Beta vulgaris* (Chenopodiaceae)
Sugar maple – *Acer saccharum* (Aceraceae)
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Production - **sugar cane**
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds - **Sucrose**\]
\
* The juice is obtained from sugar cane by crushing the stems between a series of heavy iron rollers
* Boiled with lime to neutralize
* Decolorized with sulfur dioxide
* Concentrated and crystallize
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* The juice is obtained from sugar cane by crushing the stems between a series of heavy iron rollers
* Boiled with lime to neutralize
* Decolorized with sulfur dioxide
* Concentrated and crystallize
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**Molasses**
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds - **Sucrose**\]
\
* Residual dark colored syrup obtained in the production
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* Used in foods, prepared animal foods and in the manufacture of ethyl alcohol
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* Residual dark colored syrup obtained in the production
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* Used in foods, prepared animal foods and in the manufacture of ethyl alcohol
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Production - Sugar beet
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds - **Sucrose**\]
\
* Beets are drug, washed, and sliced into small pieces known as **“cossettes”**
* Sucrose are extracted with hot water
* The solution undergo purification process
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* Beets are drug, washed, and sliced into small pieces known as **“cossettes”**
* Sucrose are extracted with hot water
* The solution undergo purification process
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Use of Sucrose
* Pharmaceutic necessity for syrups
* Demulcent and nutrient
* In sufficient concentration, bacteriostatic and preservative
* Mask the disagreeable taste in troches and tablets
* Demulcent and nutrient
* In sufficient concentration, bacteriostatic and preservative
* Mask the disagreeable taste in troches and tablets
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Demulcent
\[Sucrose\]
\
an agent that forms a soothing film over a mucous membrane
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an agent that forms a soothing film over a mucous membrane
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Troche
\[Sucrose\]
\
small lozenges
\
small lozenges
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Dextrose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* Other name: a-D(+)-glucopyranose) or D-glucose
* Sugar that occurs naturally in grapes and fruits
* Production:
* Controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of starch
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* Other name: a-D(+)-glucopyranose) or D-glucose
* Sugar that occurs naturally in grapes and fruits
* Production:
* Controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of starch
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Uses of Dextrose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* Nutrient
* Ingredient in ___ injection, alcohol and _____ injection, and other drugs.
\
* Nutrient
* Ingredient in ___ injection, alcohol and _____ injection, and other drugs.
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Dextrose Exipient
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* Crystalline ___ monohydrate that has undergone less rigorous purification.
* Use:
* Pharmaceutic necessity, sweetening agents, tablet binders and coating agent.
\
\
* Crystalline ___ monohydrate that has undergone less rigorous purification.
* Use:
* Pharmaceutic necessity, sweetening agents, tablet binders and coating agent.
\
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Dextrates
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
93% dextrose
\
93% dextrose
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Liquid Glucose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* Product of incomplete hydrolysis of starch
* in US, prepared by controlled acid hydrolysis of corn starch
\
* Product of incomplete hydrolysis of starch
* in US, prepared by controlled acid hydrolysis of corn starch
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Calcium Gluconate
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
Calcium salt of gluconic acid
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Calcium salt of gluconic acid
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Gluconic Acid
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
Produced by oxidation of dextrose.
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Produced by oxidation of dextrose.
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Ferrous Gluconate
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
* Ferrous salt of gluconic acid
* Hematinic
* Causes less gastric distress tat other ferrous salt
* Proprietary products: Fergon, Feralet, Simron
* Ferrous salt of gluconic acid
* Hematinic
* Causes less gastric distress tat other ferrous salt
* Proprietary products: Fergon, Feralet, Simron
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Hematinic
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
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Increase hemoglobin content in the blood.
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Increase hemoglobin content in the blood.
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Fructose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* Fruit sugar
* Obtained by the inversion of aqueous solutions of sucrose and subsequent separation of fructose from glucose
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* Fruit sugar
* Obtained by the inversion of aqueous solutions of sucrose and subsequent separation of fructose from glucose
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Uses of Fructose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* Food for diabetic people
* Infant feeding formulas
* Ingredient in ______ injection
* Half as sweet as the taste of glucose
\
* Food for diabetic people
* Infant feeding formulas
* Ingredient in ______ injection
* Half as sweet as the taste of glucose
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Lactose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* Cow’s milk
* Butter
* Buttermilk
* Skimmed milk
* Coagulum
* Whey
* Condensed milk
* Malted milk
\
\
* Cow’s milk
* Butter
* Buttermilk
* Skimmed milk
* Coagulum
* Whey
* Condensed milk
* Malted milk
\
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*Bos taurus* (Bovidae)
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
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Fresh unpasteurized milk.
\
Fresh unpasteurized milk.
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Butter
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
Fat globules unite.
\
Fat globules unite.
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Buttermilk
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
Liquid layer
\
Liquid layer
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Skimmed Milk
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
Milk left after separation of cream
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Milk left after separation of cream
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Coagulum
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
Skimmed milk treated with renin → cheese
\
Skimmed milk treated with renin → cheese
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Whey
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
Liquid separated from coagulum
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Liquid separated from coagulum
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Condensed Milk
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
Prepared by partial evaporation of milk in a vacuum
\
Prepared by partial evaporation of milk in a vacuum
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Malted Milk
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
Prepared by evaporating milk with an extract of malt
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Prepared by evaporating milk with an extract of malt
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Lactose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* Milk sugar
* This sugar is crystallized from the whey obtained from the manufacture of cheese
\
* Milk sugar
* This sugar is crystallized from the whey obtained from the manufacture of cheese
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Uses of Lactose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* Nutrient and pharmaceutic necessity
* Hydrolysis product → D-glucose and D-galactose
* Tablet diluent
* Nutrient in infant’s food.
\
* Nutrient and pharmaceutic necessity
* Hydrolysis product → D-glucose and D-galactose
* Tablet diluent
* Nutrient in infant’s food.
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Lactulose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* Semisynthetic sugar prepared by alkaline rearrangement of lactose
* Yields fructose and galactose upon hydrolysis
* Poorly absorbed
* Laxative
* 10-20g for chronic constipation
\
* Semisynthetic sugar prepared by alkaline rearrangement of lactose
* Yields fructose and galactose upon hydrolysis
* Poorly absorbed
* Laxative
* 10-20g for chronic constipation
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Lactose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
Glucose and Galactose
* Remain unchanged in colon, bacteria metabolizes this compound into acetic and lactic acid that causes laxative effect.
\
Glucose and Galactose
* Remain unchanged in colon, bacteria metabolizes this compound into acetic and lactic acid that causes laxative effect.
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Xylose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* D-xylose, wood sugar
* Prepared by boiling corn cobs, straw, or similar materials with dilute acid to hydrolyze the Xylan polymer.
\
* D-xylose, wood sugar
* Prepared by boiling corn cobs, straw, or similar materials with dilute acid to hydrolyze the Xylan polymer.
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Uses of Xylose
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
* Diagnostic agent to evaluate intestinal absorption
\
* Diagnostic agent to evaluate intestinal absorption
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Intestinal Malabsorption
\[Sugars and Sugar Containing Compounds\]
\
Excretion of xylose in the urine indicates ____.
\
Excretion of xylose in the urine indicates ____.
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Products of Glycolytic and Oxidative Metabolism
\[Drug Containing Compound Metabolically Related to Sugar\]
\
* Ethanol and Citric Acid
* Glycolysis
* TCA cycle
\
* Ethanol and Citric Acid
* Glycolysis
* TCA cycle
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Ethanol and Citric Acid
\[Drug Containing Compound Metabolically Related to Sugar\]
\
Produced by cellular respiration of carbohydrates, especially glucose.
\
Produced by cellular respiration of carbohydrates, especially glucose.
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Glycolysis
\[Drug Containing Compound Metabolically Related to Sugar\]
\
Embden-Meyerhof Pathway
\
Embden-Meyerhof Pathway