psych exam I

chapters 1 - 3

psychology

• the science of behavior and mental processes

Introspection

• examination of one's own thoughts and feelings

structuralism

• early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

behavioral perspective/ social-cognitive theory

• combines attending to environmental as well as cognitive contributors to an individual's behavior

physiological perspective

• examines the biological bases of behavior and emphasizes the interplay between the different parts of the brain and the various psychological and physical processes seen in humans and animals

evolutionary perspective

• focuses on adaptations that promote survival in various environments and how behavioral tendencies or predisposition might have genetic roots

psychodynamic perspective

• modern version of psychoanalysis that is more focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of other motivations behind a person's behavior than sexual motivations

humanistic perspective

• focuses on the concepts of free will and conscious choice

cognitive perspective

• examines various processes where human beings acquire and utilize knowledge

sociocultural perspective

• perspective that focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture

experimental psychologists

• conducts research on learning, cognition, sensation & perception, biological bases of behavior, and animal behavior

clinical psychologist

• helps people with adjustment problems

school psychologists

• work in school systems to help children with academic or special needs

educational psychologist

• construct standardized psychological and educational tests; improve course planning and instructional methods

developmental psychologist

• studies physical cognitive, social, and personality development across the lifespan

personality psychologist

• study the psychological characteristics that make each of us unique

social psychologist

• study the nature and causes of people's thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations

environmental psychologist

• study the ways in which people's behavior and mental processes influence, and are influential by their physical environments

industrial psychologist

• study the relationship between individuals and their jobs

health psychologist

• study the relationship between psychological factors and their prevention and treatment of physical illness

consumer psychologist

• study the relationships between psychological factors and consumers preferences and purchasing behavior

neuropsychology

• the study of the relationship between the brain and behavior

geropsychology

• focuses on the psychological processes of aging

forensic psychology

• applies psychology to the legal system

sports psychology

• applies psychology to athletic competition

Christine Ladd-Franklin

• completed all requirements for a PhD at Johns Hopkins in 1882, but was not given her doctorate

• received her doctorate 44 years later

Mary Whiton Calkins

• completed her requirements at Harvard

• in 1905 she was the first female president of the APA

Margaret Floy Washburn

• first woman to earn a PhD in psychology in the US in 1894

• the second female president of APA in 1921

Francis Sumner

• first African American to receive a doctorate in psychology in the US

J. Henry Alston

• first African American to publish research findings in a US journal

basic reaearch

• focuses on acquiring knowledge even if such knowledge as no direct practical application

applied research

• attempts to find solutions to specific problems

case-study method

• an in-depth investigation of a very rare or unusual occurrence

• can lead to a tremendous amount of information

• presents a lack of control

survey method

• utilizes questionnaires or interviews to gather information about groups of people

• allows researchers to draw conclusions about populations by examining samples

• random sampling is used to make sure that the sample is representative of the larger population

social desirability bias

• the tendency to give socially desirable responses that may not reflect the person's true feelings

naturalistic oberservation

• observing behaviors as they occur in a natural setting

• provides a more accurate picture of natural behaviors

• a lack pf control as well as the issue of bias

correlational relationships

• examines relationships between variables without manipulating them

• measurement to see if a relationship exists

• results in a correlation coefficient which is a statistic that falls between -1 and +1

• correlation coefficient tells us if the correlation is positive or negative and the magnitude of the relationship

• offers clues to underlying causes

• can identify groups of people at high risk for different problems

• increases understanding of relationships between variables or events

experimental method

• researchers can explore cause-and-effect relationships by directly maintaining some variables and observing the effects on other variables under controlled conditions

neurons

• cells in the nervous system responsible for sending and receiving messages

stoma

• cell body containing the nucleus

• performs metabolic functions of the cell

axon

• long cable projecting from the stoma

• carries neurotransmitters to the terminal buttons

terminal buttons

• swellings at the ends of axons

• releases neurotransmitters that carry neural messages to adjacent neurons

dendrites

• fibers that project from the stoma

• receives messages from neighboring neurons

sensory neurons

• neurons that transmit information from sensory organs, muscles, and internal organs to the spinal cord and brain

motor neurons

• neurons that convey nerve impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands

interneurons

• nerve cells within the central nervous system that processes information

glial cells

• supports neurons and forms the myelin sheath found in axons

myelin sheath

• a layer of protective insulation that covers the axons of certain neurons

• helps spread transmissions of nerve impulses

nodes of ranvier

• gaps in myelin sheath

• helps the neurons transmit messages more efficiently

resting potential

• state of neuron when at rest (not firing)

• involves an electric charge of -70 millivolts

active potential

• when a neuron is adequately stimulated, depolarization occurs and the cell "fires"

refractory period

• the period after a neuron fires where it must rest and return to its resting state

receptor sites

• tiny channels located on the surface of neurons following the synapse

• await to be filled with a specific neurotransmitter

antagonist

• medications that inhibit or decrease neurotransmitter activity

agonist

• medications that increase neurotransmitter activity

antidepressants

• impact how serotonin or noradrenaline operates and reduces the symptoms of major depressive episodes

plasticity

• the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

prefrontal cortex

• part of the brain that regulates personality and impulse control

central nervous system

• composed of brain and spinal cord

spinal cord

• column of nerves that travels from the base of the brain down the spine

• facilitates communication between the brain and the rest of the body

• organizes spinal reflexes

peripheral nervous system

• connects central nervous system with the rest of the body

• divided into two parts

somatic central nervous

• first part of the peripheral nervous system

• transmits information between the central neurons and the sensory organs and muscles

• controls voluntary movements

autonomic nervous system

• second part of the peripheral nervous system

• automatically regulates involuntary body processes

• takes place without the conscious control

• further separates into two divisions

sympathetic nervous system

• first division of autonomic nervous system

• accelerates bodily processes and releases energy stores to meet increased physical demands

• when in crisis, this branch activates the body

parasympathetic nervous system

• second division of autonomic nervous system

• regulates body processes that replenish energy stores

• after the crisis ends. this branch helps slow the person back down

hindbrain

• oldest part of the brain

• comprised of medulla, pons, and cerebellum

medulla

• regulates basic life functions

• forms part of brainstem

pons

• regulates wakefulness and sleep

cerebellum

• involved in regulating coordination and balance

midbrain

• lies on top of the hindbrain and below the forebrain

• part of the composition of the brainstem

reticular formation

• weblike formation of neurons that helps regulate states of attention, alertness, and arousal

forebrain

• largest part of the brain

hypothalamus

• regulates body temperature, reproduction, emotional states, aggression, and responses to stress

thalamus

• a relay station that directs sensory information and plays a role in regulating wakefulness and sleep states

amygdala

• plays a role in aggression, rage, and fear

limbic system

• comprised of hypothalamus, thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala

• involved in memory and emotional processing

cerebrum

• largest part of the forebrain

• divided into four lobes and two halves

corpus callosum

a broad band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain.

cerebral cortex

• the thin outer layer of the cerebrum

occipital lobes

• process visual stimuli

• located at the back of the head

parietal lobes

• process bodily sensations

• contains somatosensory cortex

• located on each side of the head

frontal lobes

• "executive center"

• higher role in mental function

• contains the motor cortex

• located just behind the forehead

temporal lobes

• process auditory stimuli

• located beneath and behind the frontal lobes

lateralization

• specialization of the right and left cerebral hemispheres for particular functions

endocrine system

• groups of glands located throughout the body

• secretes hormones and releases them directly into the bloodstream

• maintains homeostasis

pituitary gland

• produces various hormones that are involved in growth, regulation of menstrual cycles, and childbirth

• takes its orders from the hypothalamus

• pea sized gland located in the brain

sensation

• the process by which we receive, transform, and process stimuli from our external world to create sensory experiences

sensory receptors

• specialized nerve cells that detect stimuli and convert them into neural impulses

• located in our sensory organs, joints, and muscles

psychophysics

• the study of how sensation and perception occur, how physical stimuli are converted and understood as sensory events

absolute threshold

• the smallest intensity of a stimulus that a person can reliably detect

• can be detected 50% of the time

difference threshold

• the smallest amount of change in a stimulus needed to detect a difference

• also called a just noticeable difference

Weber's law

• the amount you must change a stimulus to detect a difference is given by a fraction of the original stimulus

sensory adaptation

• when our sensory systems become less sensitive to unchanging stimuli over time

signal detection theory

• predicts several factors that determine whether we can perceive them

  • intensity of the stimulus

  • amount of background "noise"

  • biological and psychological characteristics of the receiver

cornea

• a transparent window that cover's the eye's surface

• where light enters the eye

iris

• the colored ring of muscle that contracts or dilates to allow different amounts of light into the eye

pupil

• the opening that all allows light to pass to the rear of the eye

• surrounded by the iris

lens

• a transparent structure that changes curvature to allow you to focus on objects at different distances (accommodation)

• located behind the pupil

retina

• the interior lining of the eye

• where we find photoreceptors cones and rods

photoreceptors

• light-receiving cells