Geology

system

collection of components interacting with each other to produce outcomes that each component could not achieve on its own

open system

system affected by outside influences

closed system

self-contained system (no inputs or outputs)

emergent properties

Outcome arising from the function of the system as a whole

stock

supply of something that we want to observe and measure over time

flow

mechanisms and rate by which a stock in a system changes over time

feedback

a loop in a system that responds to and produces changes in levels of stocks that either amplify or counter a change (think of microphone feedback)

reinforcing (positive) feedback

feedback that enhances the imbalance in the direction of change in the stock

balancing (negative) feedback

feedback that works against the direction in which the stock is changing

sink

place where matter accumulates and is held for a long time

environment

the multitude of (non)living things on Earth that sustain life

system

a collection of components interacting with each other to product outcomes that each component could not achieve on its own (whole greater than sum of parts)

ecosystem

a community of life and the physical environment with which it interacts

ecosystem services

a concept that assigns a value to human benefits derived from naturally functioning ecosystems

anthropocene

a new, current epoch of Earth history, marked by conspicuous human effects on the planet

sustainability

the management of natural resources in ways that do not diminish or degrade Earth’s ability to provide them in the future

sustainable development

development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

environment, economy, equity

3Es - sustainability mindset that considers the ___, the ___, and ___

resilience

the measure of how well an environment/entity can resist degradation and recover after it is disrupted/stressed

observe, hypothesis, experiments, evaluate, alter, reject, repeat

scientific method

• ___ a problem

• Formulate a ___

• Conduct ___, gather data

• ___ data

• ___/___ hypothesis

• ___

pseudoscience

claims that are not the result of scientific inquiry or are derived by a process that is not open to scientific scrutiny

gambler’s fallacy

example: 5 tails in a row, next must be heads

footprint analysis

method used to understand the magnitude of the impact of choices and actions individuals make, both over time and collectively

demographer

social scientist who studies the characteristics and consequences of human population growth

total fertility rate

average number of children a woman has in a given population (going down globally)

replacement fertility

TFR of 2.1 children, rate at which the population does not grow or decline

crude death rate

total number of deaths per year per 1,000 people (going down globally)

carrying capacity

maximum number of individuals of a species that habitat can sustainably support (going up for humans globally when it comes to food)

demographic transition

decrease in birth and death rates of a population due to improvements in living conditions, birth control, and economic growth

mortality transition

access to needs increases, death rate decreases

fertility transition

population growth slows because birth rate declines with death rate

demographic window

country’s population dominated by working age (

stability transition

low birth rates match low death rates

youth bulge

prolonged period of low mortality with high fertility, leading to explosive population growth and a very large population of young people

natural increase

population growth due to birth rates exceeding death rates

literate life expectancy

average number of years in one’s life one has the ability to read and write

cairo consensus

agreement saying that demographic and developmental goals could only be met when the rights and opportunities of men and women were balanced

I=PAT

equation; environmental impact is a result of human population, affluence, and technology

ecological footprint analysis

tally the area of land and water required for each category of consumption and waste discharge, to make human consumption impacts visible

continental crust

low density, similar to granite

oceanic crust

high density, similar to basalt

crust

uppermost layer of the earth, fairly ductile

mantle

largest layer by mass, between crust and core

core

liquid and solid layers

mostly iron, nickel, and possibly oxygen

lithosphere

rigid outer portion of the Earth, consisting of the crust and the very top of the mantle

asthenosphere

area of Earth’s mantle that is relatively pliable

beneath lithosphere

mesosphere

more rigid

very high temperatures and pressures

inner core

solid core, hottest

outer core

liquid core, not as hot

generates earth’s magnetic field (iron and nickel)

passive margins

meeting place of continental and oceanic lithosphere, a combination of the two

active margins

oceanic and continental lithospheric tectonic plates meet and move relative to each other

convergent boundaries

plates move toward each other

divergent boundaries

plates move away from each other

transform boundaries

plates slide past each other

magnetosphere

area of space around earth that shields the planet from charged particles emitted from the Sun

established by earth’s magnetic field

mantle

the rock section of Earth above the core and below the crust

2/3rds of earth’s mass, 84% of its volume

tectonic plates

sections of the Earth’s crust that rides on top of denser material below

fault

a fracture in Earth’s crust, along which one body of rock slides past another

igneous rocks

rock formed by the cooling of molten rock (lava)

sediment

eroded material that is transported and accumulates in different places

sedimentary rock

rock formed when sediment buried under many layers of material cements together due to high pressures and temperatures

lithification

• Sediment → sedimentary rock

• Dead matter → rock

metamorphic rock

rock produced when one type of rock changes to another because of extreme heat and pressure

convergent boundaries

2+ plates move toward each other

commonly have earthquakes and tsunamis

can create mountains and volcanoes

subduction

higher density plate pushed beneath the more buoyant plate

collision

continental plates converge without subduction

accretionary wedge

ocean-floor sediments compressed between the plates

mantle wedge

oceanic plate subducts a continental plate, carbon dioxide and water trapped beneath

divergent boundaries

lithospheric plates move away from each other

continental rifting

thick crust reflects heat of the mantle onto itself, softening it

graben

ditches caused by continental rifting

horst

higher-up parts caused by continental rifting

cratons

older and more stable interiors of continents

failed rift arms

little/no tectonic activity, the effects of this stretching

mid-ocean ridges

only place on earth that create new oceanic lithosphere

transform boundaries

lithospheric plates slide past each other in the horizontal plane

transpression

compression in addition to shearing, forces build up in a bend where the plates are restricted from sliding past each other

transtension zones

require a fault that includes a releasing bend (plates pulled apart)

piercing points

geological feature cut by a fault

keep geological history in tact

minerals

natural rock-forming solids from sources in Earth’s crust, provide key materials for humans

luster, color, streak, hardness, crystal habit, cleavage, fracture, special properties

identifying minerals (eight)

strain

when applied stress > internal stress, ___ occurs by deforming the rock

deformation

change that occurs to rocks under strain

elastic deformation

reversible change to rock once the stress is related (rubber band)

ductile deformation

permanent change to rock (bending metal)

yield point

point at which elastic deformation is surpassed and strain becomes permanent

brittle deformation

results in rock fracturing

strike and dip

maps used to represent inclined beds

symmetrical folds

vertical axial plane and limbs have equal but opposite dips

asymmetrical folds

dipping, non-vertical axial planes, limbs dip at different angles

overturned folds

steeply dipping axial planes, limbs dip in the same direction but usually at different dip angles

recumbant folds

(nearly) horizontal axial planes

plunging fold

axis of the fold plunges into the ground

anticline

A-shaped folds that are convex-upward

syncline

U-shaped folds that are concave-upward

monocline

step-like folds

dome

(semi)symmetrical upwarping of rock beds

basin

inverse of a dome: a bowl-shaped depression in a rock bed

faults

brittle deformation occurs as two blocks of rock move relative to one another

polymorph

crystals with the same chemical formula but different structures