Biology Final

Define Biology

Study of Life

What makes things living

Evolutionary Adaptation, Regulation, Growth, Reproduction

7 stages of life

Biosphere

Ecosystems

Communities

Populations

Organisms

Organs

Tissues

Cells

Organelles

Molecules

Characteristics of Prokaryotic cell

Consists of Membrane

Has DNA but no nucleus (nucleoid)

No organelles

Small

Characteristics of Eukaryotic cell

Consists of membrane

Has a. nucleus with nuclear membrane and DNA

has organelles

Big

Diploid

2 sets of (23) chromosomes

Haploid

1 set of (23) chromosomes

What do chromosomes consist of

Nucleic Acids and proteins

Breakdown of DNA

DNA > Genes > Base pairs

What molecules make up DNA

Phosphate, Ribose, and Nucleotides

Is DNA transcribed to RNA (transcription) or translated to RNA

Transcribed

Is RNA transcribed to proteins or translated

Translated

Path of Gene Expression

DNA transcribed to RNA which is translated to Polypeptides (proteins)

Negative Feedback

(common) response reduces initial stimulus (EX. Insulin lowers high blood sugar)

Positive Feedback

Increases stimulus to speed up the process Ex. pregnancy

Three Domains

Bacteria, Archae, and Eukarya

What type of Organisms do Bacteria and Archae consist of

Prokaryotic Organisms

What type of Organisms does Eukarya consist of

Plants Animals Fungus and Protists

independent variable

Variable being tested

dependent variable

variable being measured that changes due to the independent variable

What elements make up most life

Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen and Nitrogen (CHON)

What elements make up the remaining life matter.

Ca K S P

Where are neutrons and protons located

Nucleus (same mass)

Max electrons in !st 2nd and 3rd chells

1st shell 2 electrons (1/2)

2nd shell 8 electrons (3-10)

3rd shell 8 electrons. (11-18)

Covalent Bond

Sharing of a pair of valence electrons

Non polar bond

Electrons shared equally

Polar bond

Electrons shared Unequally Ex. H2O

Ionic bond

Transfer in electron resulting in charge (ions)

Water properties that facilitate life

* Cohesive Behavior


* Ability to moderate temp


* Expansion upon freezing
* Great solvent

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Cohesion

Attraction to other water molecules Due to H bonds between adjacent water molecules helps transport water against gravity. Water sticks together

Adhesion

attraction between different substances like water and plant cell walls

Solution

completely homogenous liquid of. a substance

Solute

Substance that is dissolved

Molarity

mols of Solute/ L of solution

What molecules are formed from carbon compounds

Proteins, DNA, Carbs, and Lipids

How many carbons do sugars have

3 to 7 C

What do Fats consist of

Glycerol and fatty acids

What are hydrocarbons

molecules made up of H and C

ex. Fats which are hydrophobic and bonds are non-polar)

Isomers

compounds with same molecular formula but different structures and properties

Types of Isomers

Structural- diff covalent arrangements (branched/unbranched)

Cis Trans- same covalent bonds but differ in spacial arrangments

Enantiomers- mirror image (dextro/right) (Levo/left)

What are Functional Groups

The main components in organic molecules (replace H attached to carbon skeletons)number and shape give each molecule its unique property

All Functional groups

Hydroxyl (OH) - alcohol

Carbonyl (C=O)- Ketones and Aldehydes

Carboxyl( OH-C=O) - Carboxylic acid

Amino Group(H-N-H)- Amine

Phosphate PO4 - Organic phosphate

Sulfhydral -SH -thiol

Methyl CH3- Methylated Compund

Ester Linkage

In fats (O-C=O) Attaches Glycerol (CH2O) and Fatty Acids

Ketones

When Carbonyl group is in the C skeleton

Aldehyde

Wehn Carbonyl group is on the end of the skeleton

What is ATP

Adenosine Triphosphate - Has potential to react with water releasing energy

ADP

formed when ATP reacts with water and releases a Phosphate as a Pi and becomes Adenosine diphosphate

Monomers

Repeating units and builiding blocks of polymers

Polymers

made up of monomers include: Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids

What do enzymes do

Speed up Chemical Reactions or Break down polymers

Dehydration Reaction

forms or synthesizes a polymer. combines. molecules with the loss of water (H2O)

Hydrolysis Reaction

Breaks down polymer with the use of water

Carbohydrates

Are polymers of sugars

Monosachirrides

Simple sugars like glucose

Polysacharrides

Complex sugars polymer of many sugars with storage (starch and structural (cell wall) roles

What are Lipids

Hydrophobic Fats Phospholipids and Steroids consisting mostly of hydrocarbon

Saturated Fatty acids

maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds (solid)

Bad for you lead to heart problems

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

one or more double bonds whihc cause bending (liquid)

Trans Fats

Worst for health reduce HDL and increase LDL

Phospholipids

Form membrane bilayer with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. Made of a phosphate attached to a glycerol with two fatty acid tails O<

Steroids

Type of lipids made of a carbon skeleton with 4 fused rings

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Protein

diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions. make up most dry mass in cells. Very complex. Consist of Amino group R-group and Carboxyl Group

Protein Functions

Enzymes (break down/speed up), defense, storage, transport, cellular \n communication, movement, and structural support

Catabolic

Break down of molecules

Anabolic

Creating bigger molecules

Enzymatic proteins

Catalysts that speed up chemical process

Defense Proteins

Defend against disease (antibodies)

Storage proteins

Store amino acids

Transport proteins

transport substances ex. hemoglobin transports oxygen

Hormonal Proteins

Coordinate organisms activities like insulin controlling high blood sugar

Receptor Proteins

Recieve signals of chemica stimuli

Contractile and Motor Proteins

Movement like cilia and flagella as well as muscles

Structural proteins

support like keratin

Monomer of protein

Amino acid

Side chains of Amino acids

Hydrophobic and hydrophilic side chains

Electrically charged side chains are hydrophilic +-acidic. -is basic

Polypeptides

Amino Acids

monomer of Protein and Polypeptide linked by covalent bonds called peptide bonds

Four levels of protein structure

\n – Primary structure is determined by inherited genetic \n information The primary structure of a protein is the unique \n sequence of amino acids \n • Secondary structure consists of coils and folds in the \n polypeptide chain \n • Tertiary structure is determined by interactions \n among various side chains (R groups) \n • Quaternary structure results when a protein consists \n of multiple polypeptide chains

Nucleic acids

store transmit and help express hereditary info (DNA) (RNA) polymer of nucleotide

Nucleotide

Consist of Nitrogenous Base, one or more Phosphate groups and Pentose (5 Carbon sugar)

Nucleoside

Nucleotide minus the Phosphate

Pyrimidines

\[cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U)\] have a single six-membered ring

Purines

\[adenine (A) and guanine (G)\] have a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered \n ring

Basic features of all cells

Plasma membrane-

Cytosol or Cytoplasm - semifluid substance bound to membrane

Chromosomes- Carry genes

Ribosomes- make proteins

All places DNA is located

Nucleus Mitochondria and Cytoplasm

Chromatin

DNA and protein of chromosomes condenses to form discrete chromosomes as a cell prepares to divide

Where is Ribosomal rRna synthesized

nucleoulus

Ribosomes

are complexes made of ribosomal \n RNA and protein

* Carry out protein synthesis
* In the cytosol =(free ribosomes) \n Ribosomes on endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear \n envelope =(bound ribosomes)

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total membrane \n in many eukaryotic cells ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear \n envelope

Two distinct regions of ER: \n - Smooth ER (lacks ribosomes)

\- Rough ER (surface has ribosomes)

Smooth ER functions

* No ribosomes attach to it
* Synthesizes lipids
* Metabolizes carbohydrates
* Detoxifies drugs and poisons
* Stores calcium ions

Rough ER functions

* ER is bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates)
* Distributes transport vesicles (secretory proteins surrounded by membranes)
* a membrane factory for the cell

Golgi Apparatus

Consist of Flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

* Modifies products of the ER
* Manufactures certain macromolecules
* Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

Lysosome

membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes which digest macromolecules

Phagocytosis

Cell engulfing another cell

Autophagy

\n recycle the cell’s own organelles and macromolecules,

Vacuoles

large vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi apparatus

* Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in different kinds \n of cells

Food Vacuoles

created through phagocytosis (Vacuole with a digestive function)

Contractile Vacuoles

Pump out excess water

Central Vacuoles

hold organic compounds and water

Peripheral Proteins

Bound to surface of membrane

* Transport
* Enzymatic activity
* Signal transduction
* Cell-cell recognition
* Intercellular joining
* Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix \n (ECM)