PSY 224: Exam 1 Textbook Notes

Storm and stress view

Adolescence as a turbulent time with conflict and mood swings

Inventionist view

Adolescence as a sociohistorical creation, influenced by legislation

Cohort effects

Characteristics related to a person's year of birth or generation

Millennials

Generation born after 1980, connected to technology and diverse

Stereotype

Generalization about a broad group of people

Adolescent generalization gap

Generalizations about adolescence based on limited information

Contexts

Settings influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors

Culture

Behavior, patterns, beliefs passed on from generation to generation

Cross-cultural research

Comparisons of one culture with one or more other cultures

Ethnicity

Categorization based on cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language

Socioeconomic status (SES)

Classification based on occupation, education, and economic characteristics

Gender

Characteristics of people as males and females

Social policy

National government's course of action to influence citizen welfare

Development

Pattern of change from conception through lifespan

Biological processes

Physical changes in an individual's body

Cognitive processes

Changes in an individual's thinking and intelligence

Socioemotional processes

Changes in an individual's personality, emotions, relationships, and social contexts

Prenatal period

Time from conception to birth

Infancy

Developmental period from birth to 18 or 24 months

Early childhood

Developmental period from end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years

Middle and late childhood

Developmental period from about 6 to 10 or 11 years

Adolescence

Developmental period of transition from childhood to adulthood

Early adolescence

Developmental period corresponding to middle school or junior high school years

Late adolescence

Developmental period corresponding to latter half of second decade of life

Early adulthood

Developmental period from late teens or early twenties to thirties

Middle adulthood

Developmental period from about 35 to 45 years to about 55 to 65 years

Late adulthood

Developmental period from about 60 to 70 years until death

Emerging adulthood

Developmental period from approximately 18 to 25 years

Resilience

Adapting positively in face of risks and adverse circumstances

Nature-nurture issue

Debate about influence of biological inheritance and environment on development

Continuity-discontinuity issue

Controversy regarding gradual change or distinct stages in development

Early-later experience issue

Controversy regarding importance of early or later experiences in development

Theory

Interrelated set of ideas that explains phenomena and makes predictions

Hypotheses

Specific assertions and predictions that can be tested

Psychoanalytic theories

Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and emotion-based

Erikson's theory

Theory with eight stages of human development and unique tasks

Piaget's theory

Theory stating children actively construct understanding of the world

Vygotsky's theory

Sociocultural cognitive theory emphasizing culture and social interaction

Information-processing theory

Theory emphasizing manipulation and processing of information

Social cognitive theory

View that behavior, environment, and cognition are key factors in development

Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory

Theory focusing on influence of environmental systems on development

Eclectic theoretical orientation

Orientation that selects best aspects from different theories

Laboratory

Controlled setting for research, removing complex factors

Naturalistic observation

Observation of behavior in real-world settings

Standardized test

Test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring

Experience sampling method (ESM)

Research method using electronic pagers to gather real-time data

Case study

In-depth look at a single individual

Descriptive research

Research that aims to observe and record behavior

Correlational research

Research describing the strength of relationship between events or characteristics

Correlation coefficient

Number describing degree of association between variables

Experimental research

Research involving manipulation of factors to study behavior

Independent variable

Factor manipulated in experimental research

Dependent variable

Factor measured in experimental research

Cross-sectional research

Research studying different people of varying ages at one time

Longitudinal research

Research studying the same individuals over a period of time

Gender bias

Preconceived notion about abilities of females and males

Ethnic gloss

Superficial use of an ethnic label that portrays a group as more homogeneous

Puberty

Brain-neuroendocrine process stimulating rapid physical changes

Hormones

Powerful chemicals secreted by endocrine glands

Androgens

Main class of male sex hormones

Estrogens

Main class of female sex hormones

Adrenarche

Puberty phase involving hormonal changes in adrenal glands

Gonadarche

Puberty phase involving maturation of sexual characteristics

Menarche

Girl's first menstrual period

Spermarche

Boy's first ejaculation of semen

Precocious puberty

Very early onset and rapid progression of puberty

Secular trends

Patterns of onset of puberty over historical time

Female athlete triad

Combination of disordered eating, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis

Adaptive behavior

Modification of behavior that promotes survival

Evolutionary psychology

Approach emphasizing adaptation and reproduction in explaining behavior

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures containing DNA

DNA

Complex molecule containing genetic information

Genes

Units of hereditary information composed of DNA

Genotype

Person's genetic heritage

Phenotype

Observable characteristics expressed from genotype

Behavior genetics

Field studying influence of heredity and environment on traits

Twin study

Study comparing behavioral similarity of identical and fraternal twins

Adoption study

Study comparing behavior of adopted children with adoptive and biological parents

Passive genotype-environment correlations

Correlations due to genetically related parents providing rearing environment

Evocative genotype-environment correlations

Correlations due to individual's genetically shaped characteristics eliciting certain environments

Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations

Correlations due to individuals seeking out compatible environments

Epigenetic view

Belief in ongoing interchange between heredity and environment in development

Gene x environment (G x E) interaction

Interaction of specific genetic variation and environmental aspect

Neuroconstructivist view

Developmental perspective emphasizing biological processes and environmental conditions

Neurons

Nerve cells, basic units of the nervous system

Myelination

Process of insulating neurons with a layer of fat cells

Synapses

Gaps between neurons where connections occur

Corpus callosum

Bundle of axon fibers connecting brain's left and right hemispheres

Prefrontal cortex

Highest level of brain's frontal lobes involved in reasoning and decision making

Limbic system

Subcortical system in the brain involved in emotions and rewards

Amygdala

Portion of limbic system involved in emotions like anger

Schema

Mental concept or framework for organizing information

Assimilation

Incorporation of new information into existing knowledge

Accommodation

Adjustment of schema in response to new information

Equilibration

Mechanism in Piaget's theory explaining shift in thought

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget's first stage of development, coordinating sensory experiences with actions

Preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage, representing world with words, images, and drawings

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage, performing logical reasoning with concrete examples

Formal operational stage

Piaget's fourth stage, characterized by abstract and logical thought

Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

Adolescents' ability to develop hypotheses and deduce solutions