AP Psychology- Unit 6: Developmental Psychology

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan

What do developmental psychologists focus on?

\-nature and nurture

\-continuity and stages (aspects that are gradual and continuous, and which change relatively abruptly)

\-stability and change (whether our traits endure or change as we age)

Nature versus nurture

A debate surrounding the relative importance of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) in determining behavior

\-we are formed by their interrelationships

zygotes

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

cross-sectional research

a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age at the same period of time

longitudinal research

research that follows and retests the same people over time

Teratogens

(literally, "monster makers") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion heads and abnormal face features

newborn reflexes

inborn automatic response to a particular form of stimulation that all healthy babies are born with

\-rooting, sucking, grasping, Moro reflex (startle),

grasping reflex

an infant's clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience; rapid development of cerebellum at the back of the brain

\-we stand before walking

pruning process

A use-it-or-lose-it process that shuts down unused links and strengthens others

* change and reduce the number of neurons, synapses, and axons that exist within the brain and nervous system.

Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Studied children's cognition

Piaget went on to identify four stages of cognitive development.

1st: The Sensorimotor Stage

2nd: The Preoperational Stage

3rd: The Concrete Operational Stage

4th: The Formal Operational Stage

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

\-example: the little girl learned the schema for "doggy" in her picture books

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

For example, the little girl sees a cat and says "doggy". she is trying to assimilate this new animal into an existing schema. her mom tells her "no, it's a cat"

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

\-For example: the little girl accommodates her schema for furry four-legged animals, she can distinguish between cats and dogs, and her schemas become more sophisticated over time as she learns how to distinguish pets by name

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stages (from birth to nearly two years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

\-take in the world through senses and actions: looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping

\-develop object permanence (lack this then later develop it by 1 year of age)

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 years old to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language (represent things with words and images) but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of logic, such as imagining an action and mentally reversing it)

\-before about age 6, children lack the concept of conservation

\-cannot take another point of view (egocentrism)

\-thinks all things are alive (animism)

\-thinks human beings created everything (artificialism)

\-pretend play

\-think characteristics of specific idea can be applied transductive logic

Conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

"do you have a brother?" yes

"what's his name?" "jim"

"does jim have a brother" "no"

Animism

belief that objects that are inanimate (not living) have feelings, thoughts, and have the mental characteristics and qualities of living things.

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

\-some infants as young as 7 months show some knowledge of others minds

\-example: what makes a playmate angry, what annoys a sibling > begin to tease, emphasize, and persuade > use their understandings of how their actions will make others feel

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

\-reversibility of thought (addition and subtraction)

\-mathematical transformations

\-have concept of conservation

\-inductive logic: draw conclusions from number of specific facts

\-can classify objects into larger classes of objects

\-can classify by number of characteristics

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

\-abstract logic

\-can hypothesize

\-potential for mature moral reasoning

\-deductive logic: child derives specific facts from a generalization

\-systematic thinking

metacognition

thinking about thinking

Lev Vygotsky's Theory

\-studies how children think and learn

\-child's mind grows through interaction with social environment

\-zone of proximal development

\-scaffold

zone of proximal development

In Vygotsky's theory, the zone between what a child can do and what a child cannot do- it's what a child can do with help

\-example: riding a bike with training wheels

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Harry Harlow's attachment research

\-developmental psychologist Harry Harlow studied infant attachment using monkeys

\-used wire frame and cloth-covered "mothers" to study the impact of nurturing touch, warmth, and food on infant monkey attachment

\-"Even when the wire mother was the source of food, the infant monkey spent a greater amount of time clinging to the cloth surrogate"

\-human infants become attached to parents who are soft,warm, rock, feed, and pat

Critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Imprinting (Lorenz)

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

\-example: ducks

\-children do NOT imprint, but they do become more attached > familiarity

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, shows only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a cling, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness

avoidant attachment

in which people experience discomfort getting close to others and use avoidant strategies to maintain distance from other

anxious attachment

in which people constantly crave acceptance but remain vigilant to signs of possible rejection

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

what are the four parenting styles?

authoritarian

permissive

neglectful/uninvolved

authoritative

Authoritarian parenting

A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children.

\-they impose rules and expect obedience

Permissive parenting

They make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment

Negligent/uninvolved parenting

They are uninvolved, they are not demanding nor responsive; they are careless, inattentive, and do not seek to have a close relationship with their children

Authoritative parenting

they are demanding and responsive; they exert rules, but especially with other children, they encourage discussion and allow exceptions; responsive to the child's emotional needs while having high standards

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

\-some girls start at 9 (starts between 8 and 13)

\-some boys start as late as 16 (starts between 9 and 15)

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning (preconventional, conventional, postconventional).

Preconventional

\-self-interest (before age 9)

\-STAGE 1: obey rules to avoid punishment (I shouldn't take these cookies because I will get spanked)

\-STAGE 2: reward-seeking, self-benefit (If you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours)

Conventional

\-(early adolescence)

\-STAGE 3: avoidance of disapproval; desire to please others (my mom will be happy with me if I make my own bed)

\-STAGE 4: law and order; beliefs in society's rules (The law says I need to pay income taxes, so I will do it)

Postconventional

\-(adolescence and beyond)

\-STAGE 5: contract fulfillment; belief in individual rights; if laws are bad, they should be changed; social standards take precedence over laws

\-STAGE 6: "universal ethics"; "golden rule"; emphasis on value of human life (people have the right to live)

Heinz's dilemma

A man named Heinz must obtain a very expensive drug for his wife. Without the medication, his wife will die. The druggist informs Heinz that the needed medication will cost $2000. Heinz explains that he has only $1000 and asks the druggist to sell the needed drug to him at a reduced cost. The druggist refuses, indicating the cost is, and will remain, $2000. Should Heinz steal the drug?

delaying gratification

to forgo an immediate pleasure or reward in order to gain a more substantial one later

\-related to impulse control, enables longer-term goal setting

\-better performance in schools

\-healthier relationships

\-fewer chronic diseases

what does the marshmallow test reveal about kids in an instant-gratification world?

newer generations (currently in middle school, high school, college) can wait a minute longer than their parent's generations and two minutes longer than their grandparents could

\-those who could wait longer > higher SAT scores, higher self-esteem, better emotional coping skills, less likely to abuse drugs

Marshmallow Test

Walter Mischel used this test of a child's self control to predict their future success

\-adult researcher places two marshmallows in front of a child, telling him/her that he/she can have a second one if he/she can wait until they return, and then left the room and observed through two-way mirror

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage.

Trust vs. Mistrust

INFANCY (0 to 1.5 years old)

\-if needs are dependably made, infants develop a sense of basic trust

\-events: care and feeding

\-positive: "I feel safe and secure"

\-negative: "I am afraid"

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

TODDLERHOOD (1.5 to 3 years old)

\-toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities > tests independence and wants to do everything for him/herself, "can I do things myself or do I rely on others?"

\-events: power conflicts with caregivers over toilet training and exploration

\-positive: "I can make decisions, conform, and compromise when I need to"

\-negative: "I must conform"

Initiative vs. Guilt

PRE-SCHOOL (4 to 6 years old)

\-preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent, "am I good or bad?"

\-events: conflicts in taking the initiative

\-positive: "I can make things happen and I can set goals and persist"

\-negative: "I feel helpless"

Industry (Competence) vs. Inferiority

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (6 to 12 years old/puberty)

\-children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

\-events: struggle to learn the skills of the culture: the value of work

\-positive: "I take pleasure in my work"

\-negative: "I feel inadequate"

Identity vs. Role Confusion

ADOLESCENCE (teen years to 20s)

\-Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

\-events: conflict between the roles and responsibilities of child versus adult

\-positive: "I know who I am in and what I intend to do with my life"

\-negative: "I don't know who I am or where I am going"

Intimacy vs. Isolation

YOUNG ADULTHOOD (20s to 40s)

\-young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

\-events: forming intimate relationships

\-positive: "I can love and care for others"

\-negative: "I am only capable of superficial relationships"

Generativity vs. Stagnation

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40s to 60s)

\-middle aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel lack of purpose

\-events: marriage, parenthood, balancing work and family

\-positive: "I will have children and be a competent parent"

\-negative: "I have no interest in children"

Integrity vs. Despair

LATE ADULTHOOD (late 60s and up)

\-reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel sense of satisfaction or failure

\-events: the meaning of one's life and accepting death

\-positive: "My life has been meaningful and I can accept depth"

\-negative: "I fear death for my life has no meaning"

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

exercise and aging

Exercise slows aging and stimulates brain cell development and neural connections; aids memory by promoting neurogenesis; helps maintain telomeres (tips of chromosomes)

maintaining mental abilities

our brain remains plastic throughout life

"one analysis of cognitive training programs showed that they consistently improved scores on tests related to their training"

"one team of experts reported extensive evidence that brain-training interventions improve performance on the trained tasks, less evidence that such individuals improve performance on closely related tasks or that training improves everyday cognitive performance

Alzheimer's disease

a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities

Adulthood's Commitments

Love and work are defining themes in adult life. Evolutionary psychologists believe that commitment has survival value. Parents that stay together are likely to leave a viable future generation. Happiness stems from working in a job that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment.

Kubler Ross's Death and Dying

Psychologist Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (1969) - worked with terminally ill and their families; described death as an orderly transition involving five distinct stages.


1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Negotiation
4. Resignation
5. Acceptance

Denial

refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

"The doctors are wrong", "I'm fine"

Anger

a strong feeling of annoyance, displeasure, etc

"Why me?"

Bargaining

making a deal, in return for a cure, they will fulfill promises

"I'll do this to get better"

Depression

feelings of distraught

"Why live another day?"

Acceptance

"I know what's happening"; "I need to be with my family and friends, and plan for when I'm gone"

Criticism of Kubler-Ross

Model was used prescriptively rather than descriptively; ignores uniqueness of individuals; Became an order that people felt the need to fulfill; Book became a "how to" book on dying;demphasized certain emotions of the dying--> "Don't worry she'll get out of the anger stage soon";Model does not have enough significant evidence

Marcia's Theory of Identity Development

divided the identity crisis into 4 states (don't have to experience every one of these and it's not progressed from one state to the next)

\-identity foreclosure

\-identity moratorium

\-diffusion

\-identity achievement

identity foreclosure

high commitment, low exploration

\-the adolescent blindly accepts the identity and values that were given in childhood by families and significant others; their identity is foreclosed until they determine for themselves their true identity; committed to identity, but not as result of their own searching

identity moratorium

low commitment, high exploration

\-adolescents have acquired value or ill-formed ideological and occupational commitments; he/she is still undergoing the identity search (crisis); they are beginning to commit to an idea, but are still developing it

diffusion

low commitment, low exploration

\-the state of having no clear idea of one's identity and making no attempt to find that identity; these adolescents may have struggled to find their identity, but they never resolved it, and they seem to have stopped trying

identity achievement

\-high commitment, high exploration of the state of having developed well-defined personal values and self-concepts; their identities may be expanded and further defined in adulthood, but the basics are there; they are committed to an ideology and have a sense of ego identity

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

human beings, from birth, possess libido (sexual energy) that develops in five stages


1. oral
2. anal
3. phallic
4. latency
5. genital

libido

sexual energy

pleasure principle

seek pleasure \> avoid pain

oral stage

0 to 1 years old

\-pleasure come from stimulation of the mouth

examples: nursing and sucking

Oral Dependent Personality

A personality type in which the person seeks oral pleasure through overeating, smoking, and other oral means.

anal stage

1 to 3 years old

\-pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control

\-harsh or lenient toilet training can make child anal retentive or anal expulsive

anal retentive

A fixation that develops during the anal stage if a child's freedom to have bowel movements is restricted that can result in stubborn, orderly, stingy

anal expulsive

a fixation that develops during the anal stage if a child is allowed to have bowel movements too freely that can result in cruel, disorderly, messy

phallic stage

ages 3 to 6

\-focuses on genitals

\-child now notices and is attracted to (unconsciously) to the opposite sex parent, which can lead to oedipus conflict and electra conflict

oedipus conflict

boy feels rivalry (threatened) by his father for his mother's affection

\-to resolve, the boy must identify with the father