Pathophysiology

dura mater

Outer layer of meninges, tough, fibrous, double layered.

dural sinuses

Formed by spits in dura mater. Collect venous blood and CSF for return to general circulation.

mediastinum (what is it)

Area of thoracic cavity between lungs. Location of trachea, esophagus, heart & large vessels

pericardial sac

Fibrous sac, holds heart, double-walled, anchors heart to diaphragm.

endocardium

inner layer of heart, forms 4 heart valves

septum in heart

separtes L & R sides of heart

SA node - other name

pacemaker

sinus rhythm

basic rate of impulses generated by SA node (70 beats per minute)

location of sinoatrial node

right atrium

Where does impulse go to after SA node

Spreads through atrial conduction pathways, resulting in contraction of both atria

AV node - what is it

Atrioventricular node. Impulse arrives here after SA node sent it through atria

AV node - where is it

Floor of R atrium near septum. Is the only anatomical connection between atrial and ventricular portions of conduction system.

AV bundle - other name

Bundle of His - other name

ECG - what does it do

Records electrical changes sent by conduction impulses as picked up by electrodes

apoptosis

normal programmed cell death in tissues

endogenous

originating from within the body

exogenous

originating from outside the body

gangrene

necrotic tissue infected by bacteria

hypoxia

decreased or insufficient level of oxygen in the tissues

iatrogenic

caused by a treatment, procedure or error

idiopathic

no known cause

ischemia

decreased blood supply to an organ or tissue

lysis

destruction of a cell

lysosomal enzymes

released into tissues undergoing lysis; cause inflammation and damage to nearby cells and reduced function

morphologic

structural

pathogenesis

development of the disease or sequence of events involved in the tissue changes related to the specific disease process

insidious

Proceeding in a gradual, subtle way, with only vague or mild signs, but with harmful effects. Ex: "the xx effects of stress"; hepatitis

subclinical

pathologic changes occur but no obvious manifestations exhibited, perhaps because of great reserve capacity of some organs. Ex: kidney damage may progress to an advanced stage of renal failure before symptoms are manifested.

latent

silent stage, no clinical signs evident. May be called incubation period in some infectious diseases. May be communicable during this period.

prodromal

time in early development of disease; pt know of change in body, but signs are nonspecific; a stage in infections. Labs tests are negative, difficult to confirm diagnosis.

manifestations

clinical evidence or effects, signs and symptoms, local or systemic

lesion

specific local change in tissue, may be microscopic

syndrome

collection of signs and symptoms, often affecting more than one organ. Usually occur together in response to a certain condition.

remission

manifestations of the disease subside

exacerbation

manifestations of the disease increase

precipitating factor

condition that triggers an acute episode. Ex - shoveling snow on a cold day may trigger an MI

complications

new secondary or additional problems. Ex - following an MI, pt may develop congestive heart failure, which is a(n) xx.

sequelae

potential unwanted outcomes of the primary condition. Ex - paralysis following recovery from a stroke

convalescence

aka rehabilitation - period of recovery and return to normal health state. May last for several days or months.

prognosis

probability or likelihood for recovery based on average outcomes

morbidity

disease rates within a group; term sometimes used to indicate the functional impairment that certain conditions (ex stroke) cause within a population

mortality

relative number of deaths from a certain disease

epidemiology

science of tracking pattern or occurrence of disease

epidemics

Occurrences of diseases in which many people in the same place at the same time are affected

pandemic

An epidemic that is geographically widespread and affects a large proportion of the population

occurrence

tracked by recording incidence and prevalence

incidence

number of new cases in a specific population within a certain time period

prevalence

number of new and old/existing cases in a specific population within a certain time period

atrophy

decrease in cell size, resulting in reduced tissue mass. Causes incl: reduced use of tissue, insufficient nutrition, decreased neurologic or hormonal stimulation, aging

hyperplasia

increase in number of cells resulting in an enlarged tissue mass. May be compensatory - to meet increased demands; or pathologic - when there is a hormonal imbalance. May increase risk of cancer.

hypertrophy

increase in size of cells resulting in enlarged tissue mass. May be from additional work by tissue (ex- enlarged heart due to increased work demand; enlarged skel musc due to exercise).

metaplasia

one mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell type. May be adaptive to provide more resistant tissue (ex stratified squamous epithelium replaces ciliated columnar epithelium in respiratory tracts of smokers.)

dysplasia

tissue cells vary in size and shape, atypical cells, often with large nuclei, increased rate of mitosis. May be from chronic irritation infection or may be precancer.

anaplasia

cells that are undifferentiated with variable nuclear and cell structures and numerous mitotic figures. Characteristic of cancer, basis for grading aggressiveness of tumor.

neoplasia

new growth. Commonly called tumor, benign or malignant. Unique appearance and growth pattern.

2 stages of cell death

1. Initial - cell damage causes alteration in metabolic reation.

2. Loss of function. May be recovered if damaging factor is removed quickly. Or may cause morphologic changes.

achlorhydria

Absence of hydrochloric acid from the gastric juice.

agglutination

An antibody-mediated immune response in which bacteria or viruses are clumped together, effectively neutralized, and opsonized.

autoregulation

Local control of blood distribution (through vasodilation) in response to a tissue's changing metabolic needs. A compensatory mechanism that affects the cerebral vessel tone, their resistance, and the diameter of the blood vessel. Responds to pressure, CO2 and O2 changes.

bilirubin

An orange pigment which is formed by the liver as a result of heme breakdown and excreted in the bile.

cyanotic

The bluish color of the mucous membranes, nail beds, and skin that occurs when blood is not picking up an adequate amount of oxygen from the lungs

demyelination

Loss of the myelin sheath provided by Schwann cells, resulting in reduced or disorganized propagation of action potentials. This prevents nerve impulses from reaching their target. This causes tremors, paralysis, and speech disturbances.

deoxyhemoglobin

Hemoglobin that is not fully saturated with oxygen (meaning iron ion in heme groups binds with 3 or less oxygen molecules)

diapedesis

WBCs migrate through endothelial walls of capillaries and venules and enter tissue spaces by this process. There they initiate inflammation and the immune response if they encounter sites of injury or infection.

dyscrasia

Abnormality of blood or bone marrow; abnormal cell characteristics or numbers.

dyspnea

Difficult or labored breathing; shortness of breath

ecchymoses

Bluish discoloration of an area of skin or mucous membrane caused by the extravasation of blood into the subcutaneous tissues as a result of trauma to the underlying blood vessels or fragility of the vessel walls. Also called bruise. (other causes = leukemia, bleeding disorders)

erythrocytosis

An abnormal increase in number of red blood cells; also called polycythemia

erythropoietin

A hormone that stimulates production of red blood cells and hemoglobin in the bone marrow, synthesized in response to low levels of oxygen in the tissues

ferritin

Primary iron storage protein; soluble in blood; serum level reflects marrow storage iron

gastrectomy

Surgical removal of all or portion of stomach; gastric resection

glossitis

Inflammation of the tongue. Can be caused by deficiencies of vitamin B12, folic acid, and iron. The tongue is painful, sometimes covered with ulcers, and swallowing is difficult.

hemarthrosis

Bleeding into the joint cavity. Most common manifestation in patients with hemophilia

hematocrit

The proportion of RBC to the total blood volume. (f) 37-47% ; (m) 42-52 %,

hematopoiesis

Blood cell production from stem cells. Occurs in the liver and spleen of the fetus, then occurs in bone marrow after birth.

hemoptysis

Frothy sputum containing streaks of blood, usually bright red. Coughing/spitting up blood

hemosiderin

Insoluble form of iron storage; occurs when ferritin stores are at capacity

hemostasis

Process of blood clotting or control of bleeding. Involves both fibrinogen and Factor VIII.

hepatomegaly

Abnormal enlargement of the liver, usually associated with liver disease or heart failure. Detected if the span of liver dullness is increased.

hypochromic

Less color in blood; decrease in hemoglobin in RBC.

interleukin

Protein (cytokine) primarily produced by T cells, active in inflammatory and immune responses and leukocyte communication.

leukocytosis

An increase in the number of leukocytes (WBC) in the blood as a result of fever, inflammation, hemorrhage, infection, etc.

leukopenia

Abnormal decrease in the number of WBC

leukopoieses

production of WBC's in red bone marrow

macrocytes

Larger then normal RBC typically seen in LIVER DISEASE, hypothyroidism, megaloblastic anemia, CHEMOTHERAPY, post-splenectomy, and high reticulocyte count.

macrophages

A large phagocytic cell found in stationary form in the tissues or as a mobile white blood cell, especially at sites of infection.

malabsorption

Failure of the intestinal mucosa to transport the digested nutrients

megaloblasts

Abnormally large, immature, and dysfunctional red blood cell found in the blood of persons with pernicious anemia or certain other disorders

microcytic

Abnormally small RBC. MCV < 80fL, altered heme or globin synthesis, iron deficiency, thalassemia, and Hb-synthesis defects

morphology

size, form, structure and shape of cells or organs.

myelotoxins

Toxins that suppress or destroy the function of bone marrow

myelodysplastic

Bone marrow disorders that are characterized by the insufficient production of one or more types of blood cells. Referred to as "preleukemia". Eventually transforms into AML if patient lives long enough.

neutropenia

A decrease in the number of neutrophils. Caused by an overwhelming infection, 'using up the stores'- the marrow cannot replace them quick enough.

oxyhemoglobin

Hemoglobin bound to O2, up to 4 molecules, bright red.

pallor

Extreme paleness

pancytopenia

An abnormally reduced number of all cellular components in the blood

petechiae

A round pinpoint non-raised, lesion with purplish-red spots caused by bleeding in the skin.

phlebotomy

Also known as venipuncture, is the puncture of a vein for the purpose of drawing blood.

conduction system

electrical pulses of the heart; SA node > atriums > AV node > bundle of his > L & R bundle branches down interventricular septum > purkinje fibers > ventricles contract

tachycardia (ECG)