bio 3

medical imaging

produces images of organs and tissues within the body for use in diagnosis and treatment

x ray

high energy radiation that can easily penetrate materials such as skin and tissues but not metals and bone

radiograph

x rays pass through body to produce an image

bones appear white because x rays are absorbed by bone

through a photographic film or computer screen

how do radiographs view radiographs?

radiologist

doctor trained to diagnose diseases or problems using abnormalities in the radiograph

cancer, problems in the cardiovascular / respiratory systems (i.e. size of heart, structure of blood vessels), cavities, fractured / broken bones

what are radiographs used to detect?

mammogram

uses x rays to check breast tissue for the presence of cancer

quick, painless, non-invasive

what are the pros of x ray medical imaging?

high energy radiation, which can change / mutate DNA

what are cons of x ray medical imaging?

lead aprons

how do patients and technologists keep themselves safe from x-ray radiation?

fluoroscopy

technique that uses a continuous beam of x-rays to produce images that show the movement of organs (i.e. stomach, intestine, colon, body, blood vessels of heart & brain)

barium, iodine

what contrast liquids might a patient have to ingest to help the doctor see the organ clearly in fluoroscopy?

angiogram

image of blood vessels formed by fluoroscopy

coronary angiogram

special dye injected into an artery in the groin, wihch enables doctors to visualize blood flow

shows narrowing of arteries

cerebral angiogram

shows blockages in the blood vessels in the brain, which can lead to a stroke

radiotherapy

x rays used to treat cancer

x rays damage the DNA and prevent from multiplying / kill cancer cells

beam of x rays directed at tumour for minimal damage to healthy cells

can be combined with other forms of cancer therapy (i.e. surgery, chemotherapy)

ultrasound

high frequency sound waves to produce images of body tissues and organs

transducer

device that produces sound waves during ultrasound

placed on skin and soundwaves enter the body and are reflected back to the transducer by internal body structures, which creates an image of the body structure, which is recorded on a screen / viewed by a technician

can be blurred by the presence of air / gas

why aren’t ultrasounds recommended for imaging the intestinal area?

sound waves cannot penetrate bone

why aren’t ultrasounds recommended for studying bone?

guiding a needle when performing needle biopsy, during pregnancy to study the developing fetus, diagnosis of heart problems

some uses of ultrasounds

amniocentesis

ultrasound used to guide a needle that is inserted through the abdomen of the mother into the uterus so that a sample of amniotic fluid can be withdrawn and studied

can detect Down syndrome, cystic fibrosis, and spina bifida

recommended if ultrasound indicates abnormalities in the fetus or if the mother is >35 years old

echocardiogram

used to find if there is any abnormality in the heart / blood vessels that could lead to problems (i.e. stroke)

looks at how heart valves are functioning, movements of the heart, and blood clots in the heart

computed tomography (CT) or computer assisted tomography (CAT)

x-ray equipment used to form a 3D image using a series of image taken at different angles of the body

used to detect cancer, abnormalities of the skeletal system, bleeding in the brain, and vascular diseases

use to image bone, soft tissue, blood vessels

quick, painless, detailed info. (which is why they are used in emergency rooms)

what are the pros of CT scans?

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

uses powerful magnets and radio waves to produce detailed images of the body

magnet in the machine produces a strong magnetic field that interacts with hydrogen atoms (works because human body is mostly water, which contains hydrogen atoms)

magnetic field + radio frequency makes it possible for a specialized computer to generate an image

imaging the structure and function of the brain, heart, liver, soft tissues, and inside of bones

diagnosing cancer, brain diseases, cardiovascular conditions

what are MRIs used for?

nuclear medicine

using radioisotopes to provide images of how tissues / organs function

diagnosing cancer, investigating blood circulation, and evaluating disorders in organs

what are uses of nuclear medicine?

radioisotope

radioactive form of an element that emits radiation

attached to chemical that is absorbed by certain tissues / organs

emits radiation, which is detected by a special camera / computer and turned into an image

treating disease (i.e. radioactive iodine → thyroid cancer, where iodine is taken up by the thyroid tissue and kills the radiation in the iodine kills the cancer cells; iodine decays into non-radioactive element / is excreted after a few days), treating prostate / breast cancer

what are uses of radioisotopes?

positron emission tomography (PET)

type of nuclear medicine

patient is given a radioisotope tat emits particles called positrons

used to detect cancer in tissues, examine effects of cancer treatments, detect heart disease & some brain disorders (i.e. Alzheimers, epilepsy), producing cross-sectional images combined with a CT scan

what are uses of positron emission tomography (PET)?

biophotonics imaging

uses interactions of light with cells and tissues to diagnose and treat abnormalities

light shines on cells → particles of light are scattered by atoms in the molecules of the cells → special imagining device that records scatter patterns

abnormal cells create different scatter patterns than normal ones

able to view tissues deep within the body

endoscope

thin, flexible tube w/ bright light and video camera

used in gastrointestinal endoscopy / colonoscopy so that doctor can look at lining and collect tissues samples as the endoscope moves through the digestive tract

endoscopic surgery

biophotonic imaging

used to remove gallbladders and repair knees

small incision made so that the endoscope and surgical instruments (i.e. scalpel, forceps, endoscope)

surgeon views surgical area w/ endoscope

what are the factors involved in making a diagnosis and in determining the appropriate treatment? (5)

1. doctor ordering the most appropriate test
2. patient understanding use of test, preparing for and following directions during the test
3. technician administering the test properly
4. radiologist properly reading and understanding the image
5. administrators allocating adequate funding for technology

Public Health Agency of Canada

branch of the federal government that works with each province and territory to support a sustainable health care system

Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care

provides info. on health strategies that are of concern to Ontarians

36

How many public health units are there across Ontario?

public health strategies

administered by Ontarian health units for health promotion and disease prevention programs including immunization healthy lifestyles, education, and screening services

also designed to reduce the cost of health care

30

In the 18th century, smallpox killed __% of the people it infected

Edward Jenner

What British country doctor discovered vaccination by connecting cowpox to smallpox in 1796?

vaccine

substance given to boost your body’s defense system (immune system), which usually contain dead / inactivated virus / bacteria

influenza

What is the most common vaccine given each year?

42

IN 2008, __% of all Ontarians received the influenza vaccine

“An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure”

What is a saying that aligns with the goal of Ontarian prevention programs?

immunization

making a person immune to infection through vaccination

polio, tetanus, whooping cough, rubella, measles, bacterial meningitis

Immunization of children for these diseases occurs at several points in their development:

Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR)

infectious diseases that can have serious complications including mental retardation, sterility, and deafness

administered soon after a child’s first birthday and again at about 18 months

required by law for all school-aged children in Ontario unless an exemption is granted

It may cause autism

Why are some people scared of vaccination? (disproven)

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

virus that attacks a person’s immune system, which makes it weak and susceptible to all types of infections

acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

most advanced stage of HIV

time between HIV infection and AIDS diagnosis: 10-15 years

drugs exist that can slow the disease progression, but there is no cure

Dr. Harald zur Hausen

in 2008, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine for his work in discovering the connection between human papilloma virus (HPV) infections and cervical cancer? An HPV vaccine was developed based on his research.

human papilloma virus (HPV)

common family of viruses found in males and females

approved for females 9-26 in Ontario, free for Grade 8 girls

important for males to be vaccinated to prevent cervical cancer in their partners

13000

How many people does smoking tobacco kill in Ontario each year?

1000

Tobacco smoke contains how many chemicals? (1/5 of those are toxins)

carcinogens

chemicals proven to cause cancer

affects cells, tissues, and organs (particularly lungs)

carcinogens

inhaled smoke deposits what in the body?

can affect heart rate, blood pressure, increase the cellular levels of poisonous gas

What does second hand smoke do?

heart disease, liver disease, emphysema, higher chance of neurological damage and lower birth weights in children of mothers who smoke

What negative effects can smoking cause?

January 2009

As of May 2006, smoking has been prohibited in all workspaces and enclosed public places.

When did the Ontario government enact further legislation that banned smoking in cars when children under 16 years are present?

T

The sun is a carcinogen. (T/F)

> 62000

How many Canadians develop skin cancer each year?

The West Nile Virus

spread by mosquitoes, can affect birds, humans, horses, and other animals

mosquito becomes infected when it feeds on the blood of a bird carrying the virus and can transmit the virus to people and animals within 2 weeks

in humans, it can cause mild influenza-like symptoms to serious paralysis, seizure, or even death

\~80% of the people who contract the virus have no symptoms

no vaccine

* minimize exposure to mosquitos from dusk to dawn when they are most active
* remove all sources of standing water and dense brush to limit the breeding ground for mosquitoes
* apply insect repellent that contains no more than 30& DEET to clothes and exposed skin
* wear light-coloured clothing that covers arms and legs

What are the public awareness campaigns’ suggestions to protect ourselves from the virus?

screening programs

simply, inexpensive test to a large number of people to identify those people who have risk factors for cancer with the goal of reducing the incidence of disease through early detection

the Pap test, which can detect abnormalities or changes in the cervix before cancer develops

if normal for 3 years in a row, the Pap test should be done every 2-3 years

What does the Ontario Cervical Cancer Screening Program recommend for women once they’ve become sexually active?

mammograms, breast examinations

What does the Ontario Breast Screening Program provide to women between the ages of 50 and 74 years to reduce the mortality from breast cancer?

The ColonCancerCheck Program

What provides funding to screen for colorectal cancer, which is a leading cause of cancer death in Ontario? (All adults over 50 years old are screened using the fecal occult blood test (FOBT) every two years, which tests the feces for blood)

gene

each section of DNA that codes for a particular protein

DNA screening

tests developed that indicate if an individual may have a series of genes that are related to diseases such as heart disease and types of cancers

DNA markers

sections of DNA that scientists can follow throughout the process of cell division

if markers change during cell life, the DNA may be changing, which is related to the cell’s environment, which means that a cell’s DNA can be changed by its environment

woman carries a specific version of the gene for breast cancer, which means she may also have an increased risk for ovarian cancer. Treatment may include removing the ovaries and treating the breast cancer

What is an example of using DNA screening to treat cancer?

will detect if someone is at risk of getting cancer, which some people might not want to know (while others will want to know)

What are the controversial cons of DNA screening?

health education programs

communicating information using brochures, websites, posters, and television commercials to promote health

80

HIV/AIDS is considered to be one of the most serious public health problems in the world. Experts believe that education and awareness of HIV/AIDS is vital to reducing the spread of HIV. Ontario has over __ organizations and initiatives that deliver HIV/AIDS education and support to groups across the province. In addition, HIV/AIDS education is part of the Ontario curriculum.

healthy body

Research has shown that there is a link between good nutrition, school performance, and development of a __________. Programs have been created to provide opportunities for families to develop awareness of healthy eating habits.

20000-25000

How many genes are there in human DNA according to The Human Genome Project (HGP)?

gene therapy

replacing absent / faulty genes with healthy genes so that the cells function normally

treating cancer, inherited diseases, and some viral infections

In the future, what might gene therapy be used for?

1. normal hemoglobin gene
2. genetically engineered virus
3. bone marrow cell
4. nucleus
5. chromosomes
6. bone marrow

Label the diagram accordingly

cloning

creating a genetically identical organism that is an exact copy of a gene, cell, tissue, or organism

propagation, grafting

what are some examples of cloning in plants?

propagation

taking a cutting from a plant and allowing it to root and produce another plant

grafting

roots of one type of plant are attached to the shoots of a more desirable plant

reproductive cloning, gene cloning, therapeutic cloning

what are 3 ways to clone animals?

reproductive cloning

transferring a nucleus from a donor body cell into an egg cell with no nucleus

the egg is transferred into the womb of a mother and contains genetic information of the original body cell

can be used to clone endangered animals

1. donor nucleus
2. fused cell
3. egg cell

Label the diagram accordingly

gene cloning

the transfer of a gene into bacteria so that the gene can be reproduced multiple times

useful for gene therapy and experiments

therapeutic cloning

similar to reproductive cloning

used to harvest embryonic stem cells from a developing embryo, which can produce different types of cells

can also harvest adult stem cells from bone marrow

stem cells are used to regrow healthy tissue in place of damaged tissue (i.e. so that a patient can receive tissue without it being rejected)

goats that produce spider silk in their milk

fish that glow in fluorescent colours

cows, pigs, mice, rats, chickens, fish

what are some examples of transgenic animals?

transgenic organisms

organisms that contain the genes from other species

bacteria

what were the first transgenic organisms?

study effects of diseases, produce organs to be used in human organ transplants (xenotransplantation)

livestock may have extra growth hormone to make them grow faster and have leaner muscle

what are uses of transgenic organisms

xenotransplantation

the transfer of living cells, tissues, or organs from non-human animals to animals

transgenic crops have been developed to produce natural insecticide

plants (i.e. golden rice) have extra nutrients

transgenic trees have genes that increase the amount of cellulose, making the timber more desirable to the paper mills

how have transgenic plants been developed to have an increased resistance to disease / environmental challenges?

reproductive technologies

wide range of techniques that can be used to solve fertility problems in domesticated animals, zoo animals, and humans

artificial insemination (AI)

collecting sperm from a male and placing it in the reproductive system of a female

sperm can be stored in “banks”

use and donation of sperm is controlled by government policies

used on dairy and cattle farms

in vitro fertilization (IVF)

sperm and eggs are collected and placed in a test tune / petri dish so that fertilization occurs

developing embryos are implanted in the uterus of a female

multiple embryos are imiplanted because the change of success is