U10,11,12: Combined Set

Thinking/Cognition

Mental activities associated with processing, understanding, and communicating.

Schemas

Concepts, categories, or classifications of mental groupings of different objects, events, or people.

Prototypes

Common typical examples of something. (Bird\=cardinal). Can be hard to assimilate new info if it does not match your typical example.

Algorithms

Step by step process that guarantees a solution but is often time consuming and better for complicated processes.

Trial and Error

If at first you don’t succeed; try and try again. (fingers crossed).

Heuristics

Making quick judgements by using rules of thumbs. Short cuts or common sense/jumping to a conclusion.

Insight

When an answer just comes to a person. Lightbulb going off.

Confirmation Bias

An obstacle to problem solving because we tend to only search for evidence that supports one's ideas thus ignoring contradictory evidence. (confirming one's bias through cherry picking of correct information).

Fixation

An obstacle to problem solving, which is the inability to see from a fresh perspective. Focusing on past success that interferes with the ability to find new solutions.

Mental Set

Type of fixation that makes us repeat solutions that worked in the past.

Functional Fixedness

An obstacle to problem solving that prevents one from perceiving another use for an object. (Using an envelope as a toothpick).

Representativeness Heuristics

An obstacle to problem solving, which is when one judges a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds. (Stereotypes, Pitbulls\=bad). Statistics are usually not thought about in these snap judgements. (Overgeneralizing).

Availability Heuristics

An obstacle to problem solving, in which a situation (based on personal experience, or extensive media coverage) readily comes to mind. Overestimating the significance of personal experiences and hot topics. A plane crashes so one overestimates plane crashes, Ford breaks so all Fords are bad. (Overestimating).

Framing Effect (wording)

An obstacle to problem solving, in which the wording of a phrase can sway one's beliefs. 96% effectiveness is better than 4% ineffectiveness.

Belief Bias

An obstacle to problem solving, in which one makes illogical conclusions in order to confirm preexisting beliefs. (he was good once, so he will be good again). (Losing the ability to be objective).

Belief Perseverance

Obstacle to problem solving, in which one clings to the beliefs they think are true. (People ignore evidence because they value their ideas more than the evidence).

Convergent Thinking

Thinking that is pointed towards a single solution.

Divergent Thinking

Thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question; more related to creativity.

Language

The most tangible indication of our thinking power is our spoken, written, or gestured words that we combine to communicate. Made of phonemes, morphemes, and grammar.

Phonemes

The sounds of a language, English has 40, consonants carry more info than vowels. How most people learned how to read (phonics/sounding it out). Has a critical period and harder to recognize ones from another language.

Morphemes

Smallest unit of language that carries meaning, typically a combination of two or more sounds. Prefixes and suffixes that carry meaning, mal or pre. Can have multiple meanings bat (mammal or sport).

Grammar

The set of rules (Semantics [meaning] and syntax) that allows people to communicate.

Semantics in Grammar

Rules that derive the meanings of words, morphemes, and sentences. Ed means in the past, or run can be a car or by foot. Plane math or vehicle. Destination vs. last stop.

Syntax

The set of rules concerned with the order of words in a sentence, does not alter the meaning.

Language Development

When and how language develops, 4 months (baby starts babbling, allows phonemes to start developing; but does not relate to a language), one year (baby starts to speak single words like mom, dad, dog), two years (baby starts to speak two-words at a time; telegraphic stage), and last stage is speaking.

Telegraphic Stage

Occurs by two years of age, and they can generally speak two words (mostly nouns and verbs). Syntax does take place.

Debate over language

Skinner (behaviorist/operant) believed language was developed by making associations, and believed reinforcers were necessary to learn (smiles and hugs when they start speaking rewards speaking [model, observation, and imitation]). Vs. Noah Chomsky (nature) inborn universal grammar.

Noam Chomsky

Nature; believed in the inborn universal grammar theory. Thought language would come first before thinking.

Inborn Universal Grammar (Noah Chomsky)

You only have to hear a language in order to learn it. (Pre-wired to develop).

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

A concept that there is something in the brain that biologically prepares one to learn any language they interact with their caregivers.

Overgeneralization (overregulation) of Language

Chomsky believed that language or grammar was not imitation. Children don’t imitate parents with words like runned or goed, but it is good because children are learning grammatical rules. Children will later accommodate their natural rules when they are ready (nature viewpoint).

Linguistic Determinism (Relativity)(Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

Idea that language determines how one speaks and experiences the world. Easier to recognize colors when they have a specific name. Some languages don't have past tenses. Denim blue versus sky blue.

Daniel Everett Study

Tested a brazilian tribe and they could not count above two. This is because of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and their inability to make connections to words that did not exist and numbers.

Intelligence

The ability to learn from others, solve problems, and using knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Intelligence Test

A test for accessing the mental abilities of a person and comparing them with the abilities of others by means of numerical scores.

When Did Intelligence Tests Happen

Were first created at the turn of the twentieth century in France when universal education was introduced. Alfred Binet created a test to find those with special needs who would struggle in a regular class.

Mental Age

One's chronological age compared to their performance age. A 9 year old should have a match with a 9 year old. A 9 year old with a 6 year old would struggle. 9 year olds with 12 years would excel.

Mental Orthopedics

A mental workout to get an individual ready for school.

Alfred Binet Did Not

He did not believe his test measured inborn intelligence.

Lewis Terman

Believed in innate IQ, a Stanford Professor that revised Binet's test, still known as Stanford-Binet test.

IQ

Is equivalent to mental age/chronological age times 100. Not as accurate on adults.

General Intelligence (G-Factor)

Intelligence that is purely academic on 4 core subjects (Math, Science, History, and English). Charles Spearman believed that we had a factor that proved we were high or average in each and all areas.

Charles Spearman

Believed in a g-factor (had to be smart in all subjects to be smart).

Multiple Intelligence

Idea that intelligence comes from multiple different groups.

Factor Analysis

Looks at the clusters of statistical measures of test items used to determine if one has general intelligence. (4 clusters English, Math, Social Studies, and Science). Idea that if one is bad at math, they should also be bad at english. (Tells us if a student is generally intelligent or not).

Howard Gardener

Believed in multiple intelligences.

Multiple Intelligence (mi)

(Howard Gardner) Believed that intelligence comes in different packages. Each intelligence was independent of the others (8 smarts). Evidence to support this would be savant syndrome (great at something horrible at others). (Music, Visual, Verbal, Logical, Bodily, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic).

Sternberg and Wagner

Believed in multiple intelligences but believed in three clusters (Analytical \= academic, Creative \= generating new ideas, and Practical \= common sense).

Cantor and Kihlstrom

Believed in multiple intelligences but in two clusters (Academic and social [social emotional intelligence]).

Emotional Intelligence

The ability to perceive (yours and others), express, understand, and regulate emotions.

Social Intelligence

Know how to be involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully. Networking evidence to support the difference between academic and social emotional learning.

Aptitude Tests

Intended to predict one's ability to learn a new skill (SAT, future performance).

Achievement Test

Intended to reflect what one has learned (Current performance) EOC, chapter tests.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

Two of the most commonly used intelligence tests/scales. IQ test with a normal bell curve. Reliable, standardized, and valid.

Criteria for Wide Acceptance of tests

Standardization, Reliability, and Validity.

Standardization

The process of defining meaningful scores relative to a pre-tested group. (Comparing scores to the given bell curve, should be most in the average and the least in the high and low sections).

Flynn Effect

Idea that questions whether aptitude scores are decreasing or increasing. SAT scores are going down, but IQ scores are going up. Environmental factors are responsible for the increase in IQ scores (Environment, education, safety).

Positively Skewed Distribution

A graph that has low scores becoming more common (puts the mode down and skews the mean upwards). Tail points towards outliers.

Negatively Skewed Distribution

A graph that has high scores becoming more common (puts the mode up and skews the mean downwards). Tail points towards outliers.

Bimodal Distribution

A graph that shows that there are two highpoints in a data set (Amount of people at a restaurant [lots at dinner, lots a lunch]).

Standard Deviation

68% of the population will score within one unit (Vocab), and 95.44% will fall within two units (Vocab).

Reliability

A good test should be replicated each time it is taken. Should be the same score on one's first trial and same on the second trial.

Test-Retest

Used to check reliability of a test, when given the test twice, scores should be consistent.

Split-half Test

Used to check reliability, even number questions and odd number questions will be averaged from one test. Reliable if the averages are similar.

Validity

A good test should actually measure what it is supposed to measure or predict. Reliability does not translate to this. Can produce similar results when retaken but still not (vocab).

Content Validity

The extent to which the test samples the behavior of interest (What has been taught).

Predictive Validity

Predictions become weaker as time increases, prediction for an elementary schooler is likely, less likely for SAT, and even less for GRE.

Motivation

A need (physiological) or desire (psychological) that serves to energize behavior toward a goal.

Instinct/evolutionary Theory

A fixed pattern of behavior that is unlearned and occurs, to all, in a species. Failed; did not explain behaviors, only named them. (Physiological Theory because it is genetic).

Drive-Reduction Theory

Physiological (body) needs drives an organism to reduce the need. Occurs by eating or drinking. Need-\>drive-\>drive reduction behavior. Goal is homeostasis.

Homeostasis

The body's main purpose or goal of physiological needs. Means to have a steady internal state.

Incentive

Positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel one's action. Smelling food when hungry.

Arousal (Optimum) Theory

One feels driven for stimulation despite all biological needs being satisfying. (Psychological). Goal is to overcome boredom (fear chasing), or decreasing arousal (quiet, run).

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

A chart that shows that one step must be satisfied before the next one can become. Ones at the bottom must be more so met than ones at the top. Not universal does not apply to everyone.

Maslow’s Pyramid Order (bottom up)

1 Physiological Needs (Food), 2 Safety, 3 Belongingness and love (relationships/friends), 4 esteem (prestige and accomplishment), 5 self actualization (achieving one's full potential).

Lateral Hypothalamus

Makes one hungry and increases hunger. It produces orexin.

Orexin

A chemical made by the lateral hypothalamus that increases hunger.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Depressesses the feeling of hunger, one will eat and eat.

Set Point

The idea that the brain is predetermined to create ones weight. When weight falls, brain will increase hunger and metabolism will slow down. When weight increases, hunger will fall and metabolism will rise.

Basal Metabolic Rate

Energy output in maintaining basic body functions when at rest. (Athletes burn more calories when resting than a large person).

Dopamine-Food Reward System

The feel good neurotransmitter that makes happy go to happier. Can lead to food addictions or drugs. Intensifies an emotion.

Glucose

Blood sugar, major energy source one feels hungry when it is low.

Insulin

Controls blood glucose. When blood glucose is low vocab is high signaling it's time to eat. (Secreted by pancreas). Opposing tendency.

Anorexia Nervosa

When someone is significantly underweight. They avoid food, typically in high-achieving controlling families, adolescent females.

Bulimia

A disorder that occurs when repeated episodes of overeating are met by vomiting or laxatives. Women in late teens/early twenties, tend to come from families with higher than usual alcoholism, obesity, and depression, weight fluctuates within normal ranges so hard to hide.

Binge Eating Disorder

Leads to overeating and obesity. Can be genetic, abnormal neurotransmitters, social factors and esteem.

Achievement Motivation

The desire for significant accomplishment, mastering skills or ideas, for control, and for rapidly attaining a high standard.

Low Need For Achievement

They prefer either very easy, or very difficult tasks (so they are not embarrassed when failing).

High Need For Achievement

Prefer moderately difficult tasks where success is attainable with help from their own effort.

Dedication and Hard Work

Research shows that high achievement is linked to this rather than anything else.

Self-Discipline

Can be intrinsic (individuals desire) or extrinsic (seeking reward or avoiding punishment).

Overjustification Effect

When external pressure drowns out one's intrinsic motivation for an activity.

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Studies and advises workplaces with the intention of boosting morale.

Task Leadership

Directive style of giving orders and keeping people on task. More men, theory X managers assume workers are lazy and extrinsic; reward them in order to boost results.

Social Leadership

More about cooperation and collaboration to get a job done. More democratic and more females. Theory Y managers assume workers have intrinsic motivation and encourage participation in group decision making.

Bottomline

Effective managers combine both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to get the job done. Has high task leadership and high social leadership.

Depression

Caused more by a lack of serotonin than it is caused by lack of dopamine.

Flow

Mindspace when one is immersed in an activity and loses sense of self and time.

Human Factors Psychology

Under the umbrella for industrial psychology where products are designed to become more ergonomic for humans.

Intrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake because its enjoyable.