A newer understanding of STM that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from LTM
New cards
2
Memory
The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
New cards
3
Three-Box Model (Information-Processing Model)
Proposes three stages that information passes through before it is stored; stages include sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
New cards
4
Atkinson and Shiffrin
Who came up with the 3-box model (information processing)?
New cards
5
Sensory Memory
The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system; retains visual information for .5 seconds and auditory information for 3-4 seconds; SENSATION
New cards
6
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten; aka WORKING MEMORY; typically stores 7 bits of information before it is "deleted"
New cards
7
10-30 seconds
How long does short-term memories last if we do nothing with them?
New cards
8
George Miller
Psychologist that made famous the phrase: "Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two" when describing human memory
New cards
9
Through chunking, hierarchies, or mnemonics
How can a person's capacity be expanded?
New cards
10
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically = grouping
New cards
11
Hierarchies
Restructuring information so easier to encode, overall to specific pyramid
New cards
12
Mnemonics
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Ex: Acronyms, method of Loci, peg words
New cards
13
Acronyms
An abbreviation formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as a word (i.e. ROY G. BIV)
New cards
14
Method of Loci
A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations; uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance recall
New cards
15
Peg Words
A mnemonic device used to memorize lists that need to be in order; an object or image is visualized which holds ("pegs") the information ("jingle")
When is short-term memory converted to long-term memory?
New cards
17
Long-Term Memory
The relatively permanent and limitless of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
New cards
18
Can be lost later on due to retrieval failure or lack of needing to retrieve it
When are long-term memories lost?
New cards
19
Episodic, semantic, and procedural memory
What are the three formats in which long-term memory can be stored?
New cards
20
Episodic memory
Memories of specific events, stored in a sequential series of events; think TV EPISODE; ex. remembering the last time you went on a date, "episode of my 16th birthday"
Remembering WHAT happened
New cards
21
Semantic memory
General knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings, or categories rather than sequentially; ex. what is the difference between the terms effect and affect?
Remembering FACTUAL information
New cards
22
Episodic
If factual knowledge is recalled by the experience of learning it, what format of memory does this represent?
New cards
23
Procedural memory
Memories of skills and how to perform them; these memories are sequential but might be very complicated to describe in words; ex. how to throw a curveball, how to brush your teeth
Muscle memory of HOW to DO something
New cards
24
Implicit and explicit
What are the two types of memories?
New cards
25
Implicit memory
"Nondeclarative memory"; is memory retention independent of conscious recollection; relies on the cerebellum and basal ganglia to lay down "conditioned" skills & associations; motor skills, procedural movements; ex. memory of how to sweep the floor
THINK impulsive/muscle memory = SUBCONSCIOUS
New cards
26
Explicit memory
"declarative memory"; is our memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"; ex. memory of life before COVID; relies on the hippocampus and frontal lobes to store memories of names, images, & events; CONSCIOUS
THINK factual/conscious memory
New cards
27
Levels of Processing Model
Explains why we remember what we do by examining how deeply the memory was processed or thought about; memories are NEITHER short- nor long-term.
New cards
28
We remember things we spend more cognitive time and energy processing
What two processes help us to remember more?
New cards
29
Deeply (or elaboratively) processed
Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention; going in depth in order to maintain or build upon knowledge and information
Study the context and research the reasons behind the fact→ likely to recall it later
New cards
30
Shallowly (or maintenance) processed
Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words; think "temporary knowledge" - forgotten easily; i.e. reading words on a page and not comprehending them
Repeat a fact or term to yourself several times→ write it on your test→ forget it quickly
New cards
31
Recidivism
When someone does something that hurts themselves, but still engages in it anyway; i.e. if you keep sticking your thumb in your eye even though it hurts, if you eat ice cream even though you are lactose intolerant
New cards
32
George Sperling
Psychologist associated with early research into the capacity of sensory memory; tested recall time by flashing rows of numbers and saw if participants could immediately recall the numbers
New cards
33
50%
If asked to recall ALL 9 letters, participants could only recall what percent?
New cards
34
All 3
When asked to recall a single ROW out of the 9 letters shown, participants could recall how many of the 3 letters in one of the rows?
New cards
35
Iconic and echoic memory
What are the two types of sensory memory?
New cards
36
Iconic memory
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
New cards
37
Echoic memory
A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds
New cards
38
selective attention
Information is transferred from sensory memory to STM through ___________ ____________ to important or novel information
New cards
39
Dual-track Memory
Our mind operating on two tracks for processing; includes automatic and effortful processing
New cards
40
Automatic processing
Using implicit memory, is the unconscious encoding of incidental information
New cards
41
Time, space, frequency, and well-learned information
What are the four components of automatic processing?
New cards
42
Time
Unintentionally noting the sequence of the day's events
Note: Not exactly knowing the time, but knowing the chronological order of what happened in a day
New cards
43
Space
Unintentionally noting where in your textbook a specific chart is located
Where things are located; i.e. where your phone is, where your car is parked, knowing where information is located in your notes
New cards
44
Frequency
Unintentionally noting how many times you've seen specific person today
How many times an event happens in a day; i.e. How many times you see Mr. Lindsay in a day
New cards
45
Well-learned information
Word meanings; i.e. knowing what the days weather is (like today it is rainy and gloomy)
New cards
46
Effortful processing
Using explicit memory; is encoding that requires attention and conscious focus; ex. studying for a PSYCH exam
What are the different tactics of effortful processing?
New cards
48
Rehearsal
The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage = WEAK
New cards
49
Self-reference effect
Tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself = STRONG
New cards
50
Spacing Effect
The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice = STRONG
New cards
51
Herman Ebbinghaus
A German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory; is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect, first person to describe the learning curve = MR. MEMORY
New cards
52
Testing effect
Retrieving, rather than simply rereading information, yields better retention, "testing" how well you know material by emulating what would take place during a test = STRONG
New cards
53
No, "recalled" images are most likely hallucinations & unreliable
Can electrical shocks provoke memory recall?
New cards
54
Penfield Experiment 1969
Stimulated the cerebrum of participants' brains with an electric shock and had them vocalize what they saw in order to test to if electrical shocks provoke memory recall
New cards
55
Loftus 1980
Elizabeth Loftus concluded based on Penfield's data that memories are stored in various parts of the brain, so by only stimulating one brain section, you will stimulate a "hallucination"
New cards
56
No, research shows that memories are not stored in a single location
Can psychologists locate the area of the brain where memories are stored?
New cards
57
Lashley Experiment 1950
An experiment in which different cortices of rats brain were removed to demonstrate where memories are stored, found that any part of the brain that was surgically removed, memory was still present (rats still had partial knowledge of the maze no matter where the brain parts were removed)
New cards
58
No, even if the body temperature is lowered to the point that brain's activity ceases, memories are still present when the brain is "reactivated"
If the natural electrical stimulation to the brain is removed, will the brain's memory storage "reset"?
New cards
59
Gerard Experiment 1953
Conducted experiment with hamsters, taught them the route of a maze, froze the hamsters until point of death, then immediately brought them back to life, and stuck them in the maze once again = hamsters retained the memory
New cards
60
Brain Laterization
What does damage to each brain hemisphere reflect?
New cards
61
Left Hemisphere
Controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math; "school brain", 3 R's = writing, reading, arithmetic
New cards
62
Right Hemisphere
Controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial, art, facial recognition, visual information
New cards
63
Amnesia
Partial or total loss of memory
New cards
64
Implicit Amnesia
Loss of memory for motor functions (muscle memory), must think about conscious procedure or associations in order to do
New cards
65
Explicit Amnesia
Loss of conscious memory (personal/factual memories), what is typically seen in movies
New cards
66
Amnesia may be caused by damage to the cerebellum or hippocampus
What could potentially be a cause of amnesia (think DAMAGE to...)?
New cards
67
Infantile Amnesia
Absence of conscious memory for our first three years; the result of maturation of the hippocampus
New cards
68
Retrograde Amnesia
Inability to retrieve information from one's past
New cards
69
Anterograde Amnesia
The inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store = inability to form new memories
New cards
70
Stress hormones (adrenaline/noradrenaline & cortisol) trigger the body to release more glucose & provokes the amygdala
How do emotions affect our memory processing?
New cards
71
Stress can facilitate the creation of flashbulb memories and can block older memories (ex: stage fright)
What are two ways in which stress can impact memory?
New cards
72
Flashbulb Memories
Vivid episodic memories for the circumstances in which people first learned of a surprising, consequential, or emotionally arousing event; lead to stronger, more reliable memories
New cards
73
By calming yourself down and rationalizing
How can stress be overcome?
New cards
74
Synapses
Tiny spaces between neurons; the gaps between neurons are referred to as synaptic gaps.
New cards
75
When learning occurs, synapses release neurotransmitters (NT) to certain locations
How do your synapses play a role in memory formation and storage?
New cards
76
Eric Kandel Experiment 1970
Snails neurons are abnormally larger, especially in California Sea Slugs, and experiment was conducted to analyze the firing of neurons that indicated learning
New cards
77
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
"Exercise" or "working out" neurons, if you learn something and continually fire those neurons through going back to that topic and delving deeper into it and your understanding, stronger neural pathways be will be formed
Provides a neural basis for learning & associations; enhanced LTP results in increased memory & learning
New cards
78
CREB
Protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories
New cards
79
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; "go-go", speed up transmitter
New cards
80
LTP can be disrupted by trauma to brain (getting knocked out) and passing an electrical current through the brain (electroconvulsive therapy)
How can LTP be disrupted?
New cards
81
Recall, Recognition, Relearning
What are the 3 measures of memory retention (think 3 R's)?
New cards
82
Recall
A measure of memory that involves the ability to retrieve info not in conscious awareness; ex. fill-in-the-blank test (think REMEMBERING)
New cards
83
Recognition
A measure of memory that involves identifying items previously learned; ex. multiple choice test (think MATCHING)
New cards
84
Relearning
A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time; ex. Mr. Lindsay learning French for the second time
New cards
85
Retrieval cues
Stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory; anchor points you can use to access target information when it is time to retrieve it; ex. Passwords
New cards
86
Priming
The way that something is phrased can prime for the retrieval of information in a certain way
Ex: Saying rabbit and asking how to spell the word hair/hare, will be more likely to spell it like "hare" because the word rabbit stimulated association with that concept versus hair
New cards
87
Context effects
Recalling information better in a familiar context where it might have been learned or touched upon versus not
Ex: Doing a psychology test better when it is taken in psychology class versus in a science class, the class where you learned and were familiar with the information will make it easier to remember
New cards
88
Déjà vu
Eerie sense of familiarity; feeling like you’ve “been here before”
Ex: When you meet someone and felt like you have met them before, your body on a implicit level has made an association in a similar person you saw online or on a billboard while on a conscious level you experience the eerie feeling but do not consciously make that same association.
New cards
89
State-dependent memories
Whatever state of mind you are in when you encoded in information will be the easiest to again recall that information
Ex: Hiding money when drunk will be harder to find when sober, but when you are in that intoxicated state one again, will be easier to recall where it was hidden.
New cards
90
Mood-congruent memories
When you are experiencing an emotion, memories will be retrieved that are similar and can be associated with the current mood
Ex: When somebody is depressed, it will spiral because their mind is not inclined to retrieve the good memories, will tend to gravitate towards the sadder memories.
New cards
91
State-congruent relies on the physical state of the individual and a deviation from that (i.e. being drunk or high) while mood-congruent is associated with the mental and emotional state of the individual (i.e. happiness, depression, grief)
What is the difference between state-congruent and mood-congruent memory?
New cards
92
Serial position effect
The tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
New cards
93
Recency effect and primacy effect
What are the two components of the serial position effect?
New cards
94
Recency effect
The more accurate recall of items presented at the end of a series; briefly recall the last items especially quickly and well
New cards
95
Primacy effect
Tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well; after a delay, recall is best for the first items
New cards
96
Next-in-line effect
Phenomena of people being unable to recall information concerning events immediately preceding their turn to perform
Studied by 2 people
