Human Development Exam 3

biological (Perspective on Moral Development)

evolutionary, genetic heritage; brain areas
in group bias

psychoanalytic (Perspective on Moral Development)

Freud: superego and guilt; today: induction, empathy-based guilt
superego built through cultureego ideal: pride (motivates to live up to morals)conscience: guilt (if I go against rules, I'll feel guilt)

emotions motivate morality
empathy

behaviorist (Perspective on Moral Development)

rewards and punishment

social learning (Perspective on Moral Development)

modeling moral behavior; self-control

Kohlberg's stages (Mr. Hines dilemma)

cognitive-developmental (Perspective on Moral Development)

children as active thinkers about social rules

Kohlberg's stages (Mr. Hines dilemma) as moral reasoning/thinking and not impulses
Kohlberg asked what do people think makes something wrong?

models of moral behavior

most effective positive models are Bigger, Stronger, Wiser, and Kind

show consistency between words and actions (not hypocritical)

starts from birth

self-regulation (self-control)

conscious control of feelings, thoughts, and behavior

begins at 3 yrs, improves through childhood and adolescence as brain develops more (improved language and cognitive strategies)

individual differences result from parenting and temperament (how sensitive is nervous system)
co-regulation builds

response initiation

ability to not initiate a behavior before you have evaluated all the information

response inhibition

ability to stop a behavior that has begun

delayed gratification

ability to hold out for a larger reward by foregoing a smaller immediate reward

co-regulation

warm and responsive interactions that provide the support, coaching, and structure children need to understand, express, and control their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Daniel Siegel: Emotional Regulation

parent helps regulate emotions (soothe) --> child regulates emotions with help of parent

how responsive caregiver's build child's self-regulation

1. provide strong and calm presence which creates felt security
2. provide emotional coaching of self-regulation skills (validate emotions, prepare ahead for stressful day, coach during the moment to scaffold self-regulation, teach to label emotions, talk about emotions including parents' own)
3. structure the environment with limits and routines (when child gets upset with limits, calm and then connect before correcting--close lid) the more we validate emotions, the less the child has to act them out

empathy

another feeling besides pride or guilt to motivate morality

environment determines if this developsDamon

early infancy (Damon's development of empathy)

global empathy (one baby starts crying and all do in suit, related to nervous system)

1-2 years (Damon's development of empathy)

genuine feelings of concern but cannot translate into action

early childhood (Damon's development of empathy)

awareness of others' perspectives allows more appropriate responses

10-12 years (Damon's development of empathy)

empathy for people in unfortunate circumstances, humanitarianism

two parts of little bigot

1. we categorize and assimilate people people, judge out-group
2. born with tendency to like justice and kindness

environment tells us who the out-group is

love withdrawal (approach to discipline)

"I don't like you anymore"removes most basic needcauses too much fear for there to be any learning, causes lid to flip more

power assertion (approach to discipline)

most common

use of fear to get compliance

causes too much fear for there to be any learning, causes lid to flip more

induction (approach to discipline)

results in internalization of rules, uses empathy

explaining why a behavior is wrong, points out how it affects others, provides a better option or suggestions on how a child can undo any damage

broader social world (influences on prosocial behavior)

collectivist culture promotes prosocial behaviorpeople live in extended families, work is shared, maintenance of positive relationships with others is emphasized

cognitive influences (influences on prosocial behavior)

associated with cognitive maturation, self-regulation, and perspective taking

preconventional level (Kohlberg's stages of moral development)

something is wrong if it gets you in troublefear of punishment

conventional level (Kohlberg's stages of moral development)

reference laws, norms of group, something wrong if against the rules

postconventional level (Kohlberg's stages of moral development)

something beyond punishment/law saying you shouldn't harm others, justice

value of life > value of property

illegal does not equal immoral

legal does not equal moral

instrumental aggression

behavior that hurts someone else in order to achieve a goal such as gaining a possession like a toy or a space

common in infants at one year but increases from toddlerhood to 4 or 5

displayed by sociable and confident children

relational aggression

harming someone through nonphysical acts aimed at harming a person's connections with others, such as by exclusion and rumor spreading or name calling

individual differences in aggression are apparent by 6 months

excessive rage in infancy is an indicator for later problems, very few have increased aggression through childhood

how does physical aggression change through elementary and high school?

physical aggression declines through elementary and high school

most aggressive at 2 or 3 because no prefrontal lobe

peer victimization

bullying; an ongoing interaction in which a child becomes a frequent target of physical, verbal, or social harm by another child or children
physical bullying most common in childhood; verbal bullying increases in childhood and remains common in adolescence

characteristics of bullies

impulsive, domineering, show little anxiety or insecurity in peer contexts, motivated by pursuit of high status and a powerful dominant position in peer group; permissive parenting which encourages aggression, coercive control and physical discipline

boys: above average in size, use physical aggression (hyperactive, poor in school, perceive less support from teachers, higher rates of depression), target both boys and girls

girls: verbally assertive, target other girls, use relational aggression which requires social skills


bully/victims struggle with social acceptance, depression + anxiety as victims and aggressive and impulsive as bullies

difficulty managing emotions
lack parental warmth, family chaos and conflict, harsh physical discipline, permissive parenting, lack parental supervision

characteristics of victims

inhibited, frail in appearance, younger than peers, "different" or more cautious or quiet

shy, passive, socially withdrawn, and non-assertive before even becoming a victim

avoidance behaviors: respond by being defensive, crying, giving in to bullies' demands to encourage the

molder victims show reactive aggression
intrusive parenting or over-protectedness and parental criticism
insecure (submissive, anxious, passive), isolated, overprotective parents, perceived as "different"

intervening in bullying

change victims' negative perceptions of self, help to acquire skills to maintain peer relationships, teach to respond in ways that don't reinforce attackers but stress that it's not their fault

help bullies to identify, understand, and manage their and others' emotions and direct their anger in a safe, appropriate ways

teachers make a big difference

delinquent activity

common in adolescence

most is mild and does not continue into adulthood

chronic offenders and those who commit more serious crimes tend to show problem behaviors beginning in childhood

conduct disorder

psychiatric diagnosis that refers to a severe form of antisocial (against, harmful to people) behavior, characterized by aggressive behaviors that involve the destruction of property, stealing, or robbing others, or causing pain to others
aggression and antisocial behaviors indicate unmet needs

school to prison pipeline

a strictly behaviorist approach + racism
punish bad behavior, make an example out of kids

solution for school to prison pipelline

trauma and attachment informed schools and restorative justice

how to handle chronic aggression in children

figure out the need and address that need rather than punish for the behavior (indicator of need)

disorganized attachment (main and solomon)

kids showed both anxious and avoidant attachment with self-soothing, dissociation, sudden aggression (hence disorganized--kid has no strategy); when parent returns, child is afraid of source of security

nervous system goes into fight/flight/freeze with the same person who provides comfort

parent uncomfortable with closeness, needs make parent scary

parents is either frightening or frightened (sometimes as a result of child's response to frightening)parent not bigger, unable to protect kid

whole thing leads to toxic stress


by 12 and 18 months, disorganized attachment is clear- most powerful predictor of psychopathology like conduct disorder

by 3, child develops strategy of either controlling aggressive (take charge of adults, lack control themselves bc parent lacked control) or controlling caregiving (try to be the parent emotionally, feel like only pair of hands in adult relationships)
disorganized kid (adoption) can make parents disorganized

how does toxic stress affect children?

1. disrupts neural connections (especially in hippocampus)
2. produces overly active stress responses (fight, flight, freeze)
3. learning problems
4. trust/relationship problems
5. emotional disregulation: aggressive, fleeing, or shut down emotionally

trauma informed approach to intervention

behind disorganized behavior are disorganized emotions --> behind chronically disorganized emotions are disorganized relationships --> policies and capacities that promote secure relationship and help children develop emotional regulation and executive functioning versus controlling behaviors with fear and consequences


behind difficult behaviors are a legitimate need for security --> behind difficult behavior is a frightened, wise, and waiting kid --> adults affected by bad behavior and act in a way which promotes their disorganization (aggression back, scared of kid)

understanding that traumatic experiences are prevalent; understanding that trauma response can have an impact on learning, behavior (self-regulation), and relationships; schools can help children feel safe to learn; whole school effort is necessary to change the culture (not about identifying traumatized children and sending them down the hall)

three social contexts of human development

poverty, gender, ethnicity/race

racism

bias (learning for empathy based guilt) + power

systemic, institutionalized discrimination directed against people of color based on the belief that whiteness is superior
racial bias often trumps poverty for stressors

poverty

neighborhoods (correlated with low income, physical structures less maintained, noise, danger), schools (peer conflict, delinquency), family life (parents value conformity and physical punishment, mental illness more common, less reading)proxy variable meaning if affects many other things


those who "get out" have resiliency factors, not just sheer will

how poverty affects child development

unable to learn:


1. emotional regulation less developed


2. higher physical stress with higher blood pressure and stress hormones
3. more mental and physical health problems
4. lower achievement SES is income and education level

implicit bias

unintentional

explicit bias

intentional

historical trauma

cumulative emotional and psychological wounding over the lifespan and across generations, emanating from massive group trauma

Historical Unresolved Grief is the grief that accompanies the trauma

biological sex

biological, determined by genetics

intersex so also a spectrum

intersex

individuals born with any of several sex characteristics including chromosome patterns, gonads, or genitals that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies

gender

socially constructed characteristics

gender identity

individual identification with particular gender roles

sexual orientation

who you are sexually, emotionally attracted to based on their sex, gender identity, and gender expression in relation to your own

enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction

may be largely present at birth, perhaps influenced by bio factors like genetics of exposure to sex hormones in utero

younger people disclosing at earlier ages than prior generations

experience of prejudice and discrimination (context of development)

gender stereotypes

broad, generalized judgments of the activities, attitudes, skills, and characteristics deemed appropriate for gender categories in a given culture

gender role norms

normative expectations based on gender that are applied to individuals' everyday behavior

gender typing

process by which children acquire gender role norms

transgender

umbrella term for a person whose gender identity or expression is incongruent with the sex assigned at birth

non-binary

umbrella term continuum of gender identities

genderqueer

label who do not identify with the gender binary

gender fluid

gender identity shifts masculine and feminine

biological (explanations for influences on gender development)

evolutionary perspective and hormonal differences

evolutionary perspective

gender differences in behavior are adaptive

hormonal differences

high levels of testosterone promote male-typical behavior development

cognitive-developmental (explanations for influences on gender development)

children's understanding of gender is constructed through interactions with the world and thinking about their experiences

gender schema theory

gender schema theory

a cognitive explanation of gender role development that emphasized information processing and environmental influences

form gender schemas and go through world with that lens

find which category they belong in and interact how they think fits with that schema

contextual (explanations for influences on gender development)

emphasis on social learning and influence of social learning and influence of sociocultural context(punishment, modeling)parents, peers, media, culture

parents (as influences on gender development)

different perceptions and expectations for each gendergender-consistent behavior socially regulated through approval

peers (as influences on gender development)

peers reinforce gender-typed behavior and criticize cross-gender activitiesdifference in play style

media (as influences on gender development)

gender stereotyping in media depictions

more male than female characters with males in action roles and females in domestic ones

culture (as influences on gender development)

most cultures emphasize gender differences

all societies have values regarding gender-appropriate behavior and all societies transmit these values to children

infancy (gender development across lifespan)

ability to distinguish and preferences

childhood (gender development across lifespan)

rigidity of gender beliefs; gender and play

adolescence (gender development across lifespan)

what is gender intensification?young adults become increasingly sensitive to gender stereotypes and their behavior is likely to adhere to gender stereotypes

negatively view peers who violate expectations for gendered behavior

adulthood (gender development across lifespan)

what happens to gender identity?adult gender roles shaped by parental imperative, or the need for mothers and fathers to adopt different roles in order to successfully raise children

parenthood often signals shift in couples' behavior and division of labor (more traditional roles after having kids)women show greater changes in gender role attitudes and behavior than men as parents

sexual activity in adolescence

overall rate of sex in adolescence is declining, most people lose virginity at 17early sexual activity linked with problem behaviors, peer and parenting influences this (secure attachments lead to later loss of virginity), adolescent pregnancy has declined due to contraceptive use

adolescent pregnancy

risk factors: poverty, low parental warmth, poor parental monitoring, poor school achievement, delinquency, substance use, depression, early menarche (first menstruation), family members who are adolescent parents
maternal outcomes: low educational attainment, unstable marriage, financial dependence, residential dependence, single parenthood, poverty, low-level and unsatisfying employment
child outcomes: less prenatal care, more birth complications, poor school achievement, behavior problems, delinquency, substance use

abstinence only sex-ed

ineffective

kids have less protection

comprehensive sex-ed

most effective

medically accurate, developmentally appropriate, K-12prevents violence and assault
topics include: human development, relationships, personal skills, sexual behavior, sexual health, society and culture

sexual activity in emerging adulthood

casual sexual activity

sexual activity outside of relationships, occurs in context of college parties and usually involves alc use, negative emotional consequences common, benefits to casual sex?

sexual activity in adulthood

sexual activity is highest in young adulthood, modest decline over time

frequency of sex associated with emotional, sexual, and relationship satisfaction as well as overall happiness

physical changes with age influence sexual behavior

sexual activity in late adulthood

adults remain interested and capable of sex well into older adulthood, frequency of sex declines with age but sexual satisfaction remains unchanged, sexual activity is a correlate of health

authoritative parenting style (Baumrind)

relationship about building mutual trust/respect, both perspectives honored, communication flows both ways

happens through reflection on how you were parented and recognizing your fears, not just saying you'll be different

discipline is to teach not to punish

adolescent need for exploration grows but they also still need support, vulnerability, and connection

rise in child-parent conflict in adolescence, but not randomly

need continuity in parent-child relationships, secure relationship --> less conflict, adult can adapt parenting strategy with child's increased ability to reason and desire for independence

permissive parenting style (Baumrind)

relationship indulges kid, entitlement, little control exercised, not helping to close lid --> lack of self-control in child

parent not bigger, stronger; parent worries about stifling child's independence or creativity, also worried kid won't like them, fear-driven

uninvolved/neglectful parenting style (Baumrind)

not really a parenting style, relationship is non-existent, no communication, no parenting

authoritarian

relationship about control, differing perspectives not allowed, meaningful communication generally flows one way, high expectations and low praise, uses fear/threats for obedience

benefits to marriage vs. cohabitation

couples do better when married as opposed to cohabitating, more likely to get divorce if cohabitate first, must have sense of identity before intimacy

more economic, physical, and psychological, and psychological benefits to marriage; also happier, wealthier, live longer, and healthier

age and similarity

predictors of marital satisfaction and long-lasting marriage

who is more likely to struggle with parenting?

unrealistic expectations about parenthood, lack of knowledge about normal child development, insecure attachment with their own parents, insecure attachment with spouse, lack social support, low SES, or young parent

people with these risk factors are also more likely to be abusive?

how to lessen extremity of a u-curve

start with a healthy relationship

single parents

usually a mother, not a problem in an of itself bc you only need one secure attachment

consequences depend on: degree of stress in household, amount of time spent with the child, and economic status

same-sex parents

children similar in adjustment and development as those of other sex couples

sometimes better off since fewer accidental pregnancies

divorce

risk factors: education, SES, stressors, parental divorce; couple's communication and problem-solving

children show psych problems for average of 2 years

include anxiety, depression, sleep disturbances, phobias, school difficulties bc inattention and anger

after 2 years, kids are fine bc less stress and used to new routine; divorce hits at security since they don't know if other parent will leave too

better if parents maintain authoritative style and have supportive people besides parents

factors that buffer kid from stress of divorce

authoritative parenting, maintaining routines and consistency, talking to child about their fears, avoid exposing child to parental conflict

ongoing conflict is worse than splitting up bc threat to their security

blended families

composed of a biological parent and a nonrelated adult

multiple transitions entailed are stressful

factors involved in successful adaptation to blended families include when the kids are younger, step parents build warm friendship with child and adopt new roles slowly rather than rushing or forcing relationships

peer acceptance in childhood

degree to which a child is viewed as a worthy social partner by peers

popular children

children who are valued by their peers

peer rejection

children who are disliked and shunned by peers

aggressive vs withdrawn/anxious

S. Johnson research

key to relationship satisfaction = emotional responsiveness

in same way child-parent security relies on responsiveness to needs, adult relationships have same need

Gottman and Gottman research

turning toward "emotional bids" for connection"emotional bids" are small day-to-day serves, which need returns from partner

looking for response in genera, indicators that a partner can turn toward instead of away from
short, meaningless responses are a turn away

perceiving serves as a personal attack are as well
healthy relationships turn toward more than 80% of time bc relationships die from disconnection

partner is not accusing you but expressing a need, need for connection in particular