US History concept recognition part 2

Article X of the League of Nations Covenant

Definition: Required member countries to protect each other’s independence and borders.
Context: Seen by U.S. senators as a threat to American sovereignty — it might force the U.S. into foreign wars without Congress declaring war. This was a major reason the U.S. rejected joining the League.
Linked Events: Senate rejection of Treaty of Versailles
Date: Debated in 1919–1920
Key Figures: Woodrow Wilson, Henry Cabot Lodge (led opposition in Senate)

It aimed to promote collective security by ensuring mutual defense among member states, which raised concerns about entanglement in international conflicts.

“Back to Normalcy”

Definition: President Warren G. Harding’s slogan calling for a return to pre-war life and rejection of international commitments.
Context: A reaction to WWI, the Versailles Treaty, and Wilson’s activism. Americans wanted peace and prosperity at home, not foreign entanglements.
Linked Events: U.S. not joining League of Nations, isolationist policies in the 1920s
Date: 1920 presidential campaign
Key Figure: Warren G. Harding

This slogan emphasized a desire for stability and a return to traditional American values after the upheaval of World War I.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

Definition: A 1928 international agreement that outlawed war as a way to solve conflicts.
Context: Signed by 62 nations, including the U.S., it was idealistic — there was no enforcement mechanism. It showed global desire to prevent another world war but was ultimately ineffective.
Linked Events: Interwar peace efforts, U.S. diplomatic engagement without military alliances
Date: August 27, 1928
Key Figures: Frank B. Kellogg (U.S. Secretary of State), Aristide Briand (French Foreign Minister)

Neutrality Laws, 1935–1939

Definition: A series of U.S. laws to keep the country out of future foreign wars.
Context: Congress passed these in reaction to WWI, aiming to avoid being drawn into another conflict through arms sales or alliances. They banned selling weapons to warring nations and traveling on belligerent ships.
Linked Events: Rise of fascism in Europe, WWII begins despite U.S. neutrality
Date: 1935 (first act), revised until 1939
Key Figures: Franklin D. Roosevelt (president), U.S. Congress

Lend-Lease Act

Definition: A 1941 U.S. law that allowed the President to send military aid to countries whose defense was vital to the U.S.
Context: Passed before the U.S. entered WWII, it helped Britain and later the Soviet Union fight Nazi Germany. It marked the end of official neutrality and signaled U.S. involvement.
Linked Events: WWII, U.S. becoming the “arsenal of democracy”
Date: March 11, 1941
Key Figure: Franklin D. Roosevelt

Atlantic Charter

Definition: A 1941 joint declaration by Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill outlining shared goals for a post-WWII world, including self-determination, free trade, and disarmament.
Context: Laid the ideological groundwork for the United Nations and postwar diplomacy.
Date: August 1941
Key Figures: Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill

Teheran Summit

Definition: The first meeting of the "Big Three" Allied leaders (Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin) during WWII to discuss military strategy and postwar plans.
Context: They agreed to open a second front in Western Europe (D-Day), shaping the final phase of the war.
Date: November 28 – December 1, 1943
Key Figures: Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin

Yalta Conference

Definition: A major WWII summit where the Allies decided the postwar structure of Europe, including the division of Germany and plans for the United Nations.
Context: Also included controversial agreements over Soviet influence in Eastern Europe.
Date: February 4–11, 1945
Key Figures: Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin

Cold War

Definition: A long period of political, ideological, and military tension between the United States and the Soviet Union after WWII.
Context: It was marked by proxy wars, nuclear arms race, and global competition without direct military conflict between the superpowers.
Date: Roughly 1947–1991
Key Figures: Truman, Stalin, Reagan, Gorbachev

Containment

Definition: U.S. foreign policy strategy to stop the spread of communism by supporting allies and resisting Soviet expansion.
Context: Became the central doctrine of U.S. policy during the Cold War, especially after the Truman Doctrine.
Key Figures: George F. Kennan (formulated the concept), Truman

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The Marshall Plan

Definition: A U.S. economic aid program to help rebuild Western Europe after WWII and prevent the spread of communism.
Context: Provided over $12 billion to European nations and contributed to economic recovery and U.S. influence.
Date: 1948
Key Figure: George C. Marshall

Truman Doctrine

Definition: U.S. policy stating that America would provide political, military, and economic support to countries threatened by communism.
Context: Originally applied to Greece and Turkey, it marked a shift from isolationism to global engagement.
Date: March 1947
Key Figure: Harry S. Truman

The National Security Act of 1947

Definition: U.S. law that restructured the military and intelligence agencies after WWII, creating the Department of Defense, CIA, and NSC.
Context: Established the modern national security infrastructure of the U.S.
Date: 1947
Key Figure: President Truman

National Security Council (NSC)

Definition: An advisory body created by the National Security Act of 1947 to help the President coordinate military, foreign, and intelligence policy.
Key Members: President, Vice President, Secretaries of State and Defense, Joint Chiefs of Staff, National Security Advisor

Korean War

Definition: A conflict between communist North Korea (supported by China and the USSR) and South Korea (supported by the U.S. and UN).
Context: First major military test of U.S. containment strategy in the Cold War.
Date: 1950–1953
Key Figures: Harry Truman, Douglas MacArthur, Kim Il-sung

The Domino Theory

Definition: The belief that if one country in a region fell to communism, nearby nations would also fall like a row of dominos.
Context: Justified U.S. intervention in Southeast Asia, especially Vietnam.
Key Figure: Dwight D. Eisenhower

The Eisenhower Doctrine

Definition: Policy that the U.S. would use force to protect the Middle East from communist aggression.
Context: Response to growing Soviet influence and instability in the region.
Date: 1957
Key Figure: Dwight D. Eisenhower

Bay of Pigs Incident

Definition: A failed U.S.-backed invasion of Cuba by anti-Castro exiles aiming to overthrow Fidel Castro.
Context: Embarrassing failure for the Kennedy administration and pushed Cuba closer to the Soviet Union.
Date: April 1961
Key Figures: John F. Kennedy, Fidel Castro

Cuban Missile Crisis

Definition: A 13-day confrontation between the U.S. and USSR over Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba.
Context: Closest the world came to nuclear war; resolved through a secret deal and marked a turning point in Cold War diplomacy.
Date: October 1962
Key Figures: John F. Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev