AP Psych Midterm

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Wilhelm Wundt

Theory of structuralism; set up the first psych lab; trained people in introspection

William James

Theory of functionalism; published first psych textbook

Structuralism

Used introspection to study consciousness and behavior

Functionalism

Studies consciousness and behavior through purpose/environment

Mary Calkins

Studied with William James; a president of the American Psychological Association

Margaret Washburn

First woman to get a Ph.D. in psych

G. Stanley Hall

Student of William James; started the study of child development. first president of the American Psychological Association

Max Wertheimer

Gestalt psychologist- Thought and behavior are intertwined + Therapists use context of issues rather than just issues

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalytic theory; criticized for being unscientific

Psychoanalytic theory

People have unconscious memories/thoughts that are repressed and can only be recovered through therapies

John Watson

Behaviorist; argued scientific psych needs observable concepts; studied Ivan Pavlov's conditioning experiments

Ivan Pavlov

Classical conditioning theory

Behaviorism

Psychologists should only look at stimuli and responses to it, not consciousness

B.F. Skinner

Expanded behaviorism to include reinforcement (the effect of stimuli on certain reactions)

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

Humanists

Humanist perspective

We choose behaviors based on needs; not easily scientifically tested; mostly a historic perspective

Psychoanalytic perspective

The unconscious mind controls a lot of our thoughts and actions; can be examined through dream analysis, word association, and other therapies

Biopsychology

Human thought and behavior through biological processes; cognition and reactions caused by genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters; a rapidly growing field

Evolutionary perspective

Human thought and behavior through natural selection; advantageous traits passed down; based on Darwin

Charles Darwin

Theory of natural selection

Behavioral perspective

Human thought and behavior through conditioning; look at behaviors and reactions to environmental conditions

Cognitive perspective

Human thought and behavior through interpretation, processing, and memory of environmental events; if a behavior makes sense to you based on interpretation of the world you will do it

Jean Piaget

Cognitive development theory

Social-cultural perspective

Human thought and behavior based on cultural standards and variety

Hindsight bias

The "I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon"

Critical thinking

Thinking without blind acceptance of arguments/conclusions but examining bias, sources, evidence, perspectives, and conclusions

Empiricism

knowledge originates in experience; science relies on observation and experimentation

Theory

an explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events that produces hypotheses

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational definition

a definition used in a research study that outlines the exact procedure and meaning of the study, allowing for replication

Replication

repeating a research study, usually with different participants and situations, to test if the original findings can be generalized

Case study

a descriptive method where an individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles; can be misleading if atypical

Naturalistic observation

a descriptive method involving observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulating or controlling it

Survey

a descriptive method used to retrieve the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually done by questioning a random representative sample

Sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Population

all those in a group being studied; the group from which samples are taken

Random sample

a sample that represents a population because each member has an equal chance of being included

Correlation

a measure of how much two variables change together, thus how well the variables predict each other

Correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (-1 to 1); the closer to 1 or -1 the stronger

Scatterplot

the amount of scatter suggests the strength of correlation between the two variables

Illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on a behavior or mental process

Experimental group

the group exposed to the treatment/independent variable

Control group

the group not exposed to the treatment; used as a comparison for the experimental group

Random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups randomly which minimizes confounding variables

Double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research staff and participants are unaware of which participants received a treatment or placebo; counters the placebo effect

Independent variable

the experimental factor that is being manipulated; the effect is what's being studied

Confounding variable

factors other than the independent variable that affect the results of the experiment

Dependent variable

the variable that may change in response to the independent variable being manipulated

Validity

how much an experiment measures/predicts what it is meant to

Descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

Histogram

a use of descriptive statistics; a bar graph depicting frequency distribution

Mode

the most frequently occurring number(s) in a set

Mean

the average; add all the numbers and divide by the amount of numbers in a set

Median

The middle number in a set, half are below, half are above

Skewed distribution

a representation of numbers that lacks symmetry around the average; biased by outliers

Range

the difference between highest and lowest numbers of a set

Standard deviation

a measure of how much numbers vary from the mean value; more accurate and useful

Normal curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of data. Most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer going outward

Inferential Statistics

numerical data that allows generalization to a greater population

Statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that results occurred by chance

Culture

shared ideas and behaviors passed from one generation to the next

Informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough that they can decide if they want to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study given to participants including purpose and deceptions

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

proposed the three-stage processing model of memory (sensory memory to short-term memory to long-term memory)

George Miller

Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 items

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Spacing effect

information is retained better if there is a longer period of time between sessions or relearning

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

Testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

Shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Eric Kandel

Studied sea slugs and found that learning and memory are shown by changes in synapses and neural pathways.

Long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Recall

retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time (fill in the blank test)

Recognition

identifying items previously learned (multiple choice test)

Relearning

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time (studying for a final)

Mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

Serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

Retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

Proactive interference

when prior learning disrupts the recall of new information