EX 5 BZ 214

What does is elimination in simple terms?

feces

What mammalian characteristics lead them to be high energy needing?

endothermy, gestation and lactation.

What does the fact that mammals need a lot of energy require them to do?

Increase in the amount and quality of food needed to survive and reproduce

What mammalian specializations increase their efficiency of digestion and absorption?

Secondary palate, jaw musculature, teeth.

What animals have heterodont dentition?

carnivores.

What kind of dentition do omnivores have and why?

Bunodont dentition which is good at crushing.

What kind of dentition is found in herbivores and why?

Lophodont dentition which has elongated ridges between cusps and Selenodont dentition found in ungulates.

Why do herbivores require a complex digestive system?

No vertebrate can digest cellulose on their own thus is more complex as one needs the ability to break down cell walls and need a symbiotic relationship in order to complete this

Characteristics of foregut fermentation

Multi-chambered stomachs, regurgitate and chew food to further break it down, need high quality of food.

Does hindgut fermentation require a small or large stomach?

small stomach because the cecum acts as the fermentation chamber.

Where does carbohydrate digestion take place?

In the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus since chemical digestion begins in the mouth and no further digestion happens in the stomach.

Where are polysaccharides broken down?

The lumen of the small intestine.

Where can the subcutaneous fat be found?

In the hypodermis/subdermis.

What are the two theories of flight?

trees down and ground up

What does the “Trees Down” theory say about the ancestors of birds?

They were arboreal and used their wings to steer between trees to avoid the ground.

What is necessary to stay in an arboreal environment?

maintaining suspension.

What does the “Ground-up” theory say about the ancestors of birds?

They were leaping ground organisms that flapped to catch prey and/or avoid predators. Wing assisted incline running.

What is wing assisted incline running?

The use of wings being assisted to boost organisms up an incline and to give a flapping motion similar to flight.

What is a modern example of a “trees down” ancestor?

flying squirrels

What is a modern example of a “ground up” ancestor?

chickens running and flapping

What does the placement of scapula in Archaeoptyerx fossil say about the ground up hypothesis?

Does not support the wing movement that would be necessary for wing assisted incline running.

Why is it difficult to make statements regarding evolutionary behavior?

Behavior does not fossilize.

What are the similar characteristics that all birds share?

toothless beaks, bipedal posture, internal fertilization and lay eggs, furcula (fused clavicle-wishbone) and feathers

What is the only thing required for flight in birds?

wings

How does the keeled sternum aid in flight.

It provides a site for muscle attachment that aids in flight.

What is a common feature of the avian skeleton?

extensive fusions of bones.

What is a misconception of pneumatic bone in birds?

All birds have pneumatic bones - filled with air spaces but have reinforcements.

Which birds do and do not have pneumatic bones

Large soaring birds do have them but small diving birds do not.

Why do large soaring birds have pneumatic bones?

They need to maintain a greater body weight in the air for longer.

How do different ancestors affect whether or not a descendant will have pneumatic bones?

Different ancestors lead to different traits (whether or not they will have pneumatic bone)

What is a trend in bones of birds?

They are generally light and have different densities than mammals which maximize stiffness and strength.

How do scientists measure bone density?

They use the densities of the cranium, humerus and femur and then calculate the mean.

Which animals bones have a higher density, birds or bats?

Birds

True or False? Since birds have the highest bone density they are the heaviest?

False, density does not equal weight.

What does having denser bones do for birds?

Supporting flight, maneuvering bodies, absorbing impact when they land

What does the pelvic region of a bird look like?

The pelvic bones are fused with lumbar and sacral vertebrae.

What are the pelvic bones fused with the lumbar and sacral vertebrae in birds?

It stiffens the body and reduces weight

Why is it important for birds to reduce their weight?

You have to put in more energy to lift yourself off the ground because lighter is better for flight.

What does the pygostyle serve to do?

It assists in weight reduction and serves as an attachment for tail feathers which aid in landing and maneuverability.

True or False? The wing of a bird and the arm of a human have similarities in bone structure?

True! They have similar terminology and structure.

What is the size of birds ulna’s?

Large

What does the large ulna do in birds?

It supports secondaries (feathers).

Carpal and metacarpal characteristics birds

They have a reduced number of carpals and have the loss of 1 and 5 metacarpals.

What is the rump of a bird?

Fused portion called the synsacrum

what does the alula feather do?

Helps to create lift and prevents stall which aids in landing

What bone affects the different fly strategies of birds?

The size of the arm and hand bones can impact which kind of flyer you are seeing.

What do the remaining metacarpals form in a birds arm?

The 2nd, 3rd and 4th metacarpals form the Carpometacarpus.

What does the forelimb region support?

The wing feathers

What are the wing and flight feathers divided into?

Primary, secondary and tertiary feathers (remiges).

What are the tail feathers also known as?

rectrices

What feathers fill in the outline of the bird?

contour

What type of feather is an intermediate between down and contour?

semiplume

What feathers aid in insulation?

down

What do feathers do?

They help to maintain the aerodynamic shape of the bird and aid in flight

What types of feathers serve sensory purposes?

bristle and filoplume

Hindlimb region of the bird, what are the proximal tarsals fused with?

The proximal tarsals are fused with the tibia to form the tibiotarsus

What are the digital tarsals fused with?

The digital tarsals are fused with the metatarsals to form the tarsometatarsus

What is a possible region for the poised position of birds?

The joint between the tarsometatarsus and toes.

Why does one toe point back in birds?

It helps to maintain the bipedal posture and to aid in support

What is one unique way that some birds defend themselves (related to toes)?

Some birds have a fifth toe that they can use in this way.

What is the variation between the sternums in birds?

They can be keeled or flat

What is the purpose of a keeled sternum in birds that fly?

Increased surface area for musculature attachment that aid in flight.

What is a keeled sternum associated with?

flight birds

What are flat sternums associated with?

flightless birds

What is one way that birds minimize weight?

They reduce some muscles.

True or False? Flight muscles in birds are small.

False, they are large, pectoral muscles make up about 15-20% body weight.

Where are most muscles located in birds?

Near the center of gravity because that is where weight distribution is equal in all directions.

What in the bird helps to keep weight near the center of gravity?

forelimbs

What helps to support the body of the bird?

Their rigid skeleton

How are the muscles of terrestrial birds different? What does this say about all birds?

They will likely have more hindlimb muscle and not all birds have reduced hindlimb muscle.

True or False, All birds perch?

False, not all birds perch.

What is the relaxed state of the birds toes?

The relaxed state is closed because then they don’t need to use energy to grip a branch.

What is perching in birds?

Tendons help flex toes.

Where is the pectoralis located?

Originates on keel and attached to underside of the humerus

What does the pectoralis muscle function in relating to bird flight?

Aids in the downstroke.

What does the supracoracoideus muscle function in relating to bird flight?

It aids in the upstroke.

What does the downstroke of the bird compress and why?

It compresses the furcula which springs back up to aid in the upstroke.

Where is the supracoracoideus located on the bird?

Originates on keel and attached to upper side of the humerus

What does the weight of an organism double?

It doubles the force required to fly.

What are some physics aspects that affect flight?

Wing landing, angle of attack, camber, induced drag, aspect ratio.

What is wing loading?

Total mass of the animal divided by the area of the wing.

What is the angle of attack?

Angle between a reference line of the body and oncoming flow.

What is camber?

Degree of curvature that the wing has as it is moving in the upstroke and downstroke.

What is induced drag?

The force exerted on the organism moving through fluid (always oriented in direction of relative fluid flow).

What can wing shape reduce?

induced drag

What is the aspect ratio in relation to bird flight?

Ratio of length to width of wings

Characteristics of high aspect ratio birds?

Low drag, low lift, high lift to drag ratio.

What does aspect ratio affect?

Cost and range of flight.

What types of birds have a high aspect ratio?

Gliding and soaring birds

Characteristics of low aspect ratio birds?

High drag, greater lift, low lift to drag ratio

What types of birds have a low aspect ratio?

maneuverable fliers

What do the wings of a high aspect ratio bird look like?

They are long and pointed

What do the wings of a low aspect ratio bird look like?

They are short and broad

True or False, birds who move underwater have thin bodies with thin plumages?

False! water birds have wide bodies to increase streamlining and dense plumage to maintaining a dry state and help with insulation.

How is the hind portion of water birds different than flying ones?

They have increased musculature on their hind limbs and webbed/lobed feet that they use for propulsion.

Is the preening gland of water birds large or small and why?

Large, to increase waterproofing and maintains feather position.

How do swimming and diving birds reduce their buoyancy?

They reduce air sacs, plumage air and pneumatic bone.

How has the penguins ability to fly been impacted?

Their modified wings that are very successful at diving affect flight.

True or False, since penguins can’t fly they have no use for their wings?

False! They use them to power themselves out of the water and swim quickly. They also use their wings to move in a terrestrial environment.