Module 4 - Knowledge Representation and Organization

Perception

Includes both bottom-up and top-down processing; What we communicate is what we represent to them, not the idea itself.

Internal Representation

uses top-down processing

Mental Imagery

Mental representation of stimuli when those stimuli are not physically present in the environment

Knowledge-driven; Hallmark of creativity and imagination

Diseases such as schizophrenia.

Inability to generate mental imagery or to distinguish it from actual sensory perception are linked to neurocognitive conditions

Mental Rotation

Cognitive operation during which a mental image is formed and rotated into a different orientation in space

Involved in spatial reasoning and problem- solving

Practical Application of Mental Rotation

Sports and Physical Activities, Driving and Parking, Gaming

Research on Mental Rotation

The nature of the instructions for mental rotation influence the pattern of activation in the cortex.

Structured Instructions:

Right frontal lobes and parietal lobes

Frontal Lobe (Structured)

Executive

Parietal Lobe (Structured)

Sensory Perceiving

Unstructured Instructions

Left temporal lobe and motor cortex

Temporal (Unstructured)

Retrieving and Storing Memory

Motor (Unstructured)

Planning & Controlling

Stimulates motor cortex

Rehabilitation Exercise for people who are recovering from Stroke

Analog Code

Internal representations closely resembles the physical object.

Analogous to the real-world object. For easier objects

Propositional Code

Abstract, language-like representation

It does not physically resemble the original stimulus

Close relative of language

True

True or False: Our memory has a limited capacity for visual imagery; Depends on the contexts and preferences.

Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Stimulus

Mental images are less likely to be so stable and easy to re-reference over time.

We cannot always consult a stored mental image.

Visualizers

Strong mental imagery during cognitive processing; Occipital Regions of Cortex

Verbalizers

Rely most on verbal descriptions during cognitive processing; Frontal Cortical Areas

Cognitive map

A mental representation of geographic information, including our environment

Cardinal (General Direction)

Simplest and more efficient (flexibility)

Redirectional

Complex

Spatial Framework Model

Cognitive maps are not perfect replicas of reality; we "activate" a cognitive map that represents a particular scene

The above-below dimension

Important

Vertical Dimension

Gravity Component

Dominant or not

Navigate buildings with multiple floors

The front-back dimension

Is moderately important

Horizontal dimension

Depth & Distance

Applicable when estimating distance

The right-left dimension

Is least important

Roughly symmetrical

We often be confused

Inference

Logical interpretations and conclusions not part of the original stimulus material

Semantic memory

Our organized knowledge about the world

Episodic Memory

Specific

General knowledge

Inference

Lexical knowledge

Lexical semantics

Understanding words/language

Conceptual knowledge

Category and Concept

Category

A set of objects that belong together

Makes numerous inferences

Concept

Mental representations of a category

Aids our mindset

Approaches to Semantic Memory

Prototype and Exemplar

Parietal Lobe (Structured)

Sensory Perceiving

Prototypicality

The degree that they are representative of their category

Classical theories: "Necessary and sufficient" model

An item can belong in the category as long as it has the appropriate necessary and sufficient features; clear-cut

Categories have a graded structure

Not all members of the category are created equal

Begins with the most representative members, and continues on through its non-prototypical members

Levels of Categorization

Superordinate, Basic, Subordinate

Superordinate

higher-level or more general

Ex. Animal

Basic

Moderately specific; the category we use the most in naming objects

Ex. Dog

Subordinate

Lower-level or more specific categories

Ex. Golden Retriever

Conclusion about the Prototype Approach

Accounts for our ability to form concepts about groups that are loosely structured

Problems with this approach:

A model of semantic memory must acknowledge that concepts can be stable and variable

We also do store specific information about individual examples of a category

Similarities of Stereotyping and Prototyping

Both automatic, energy saving, same process

Stereotyping

Includes prejudice and rigid.

Prototyping

Is much more flexible.

Exemplar Approach

We first learn information about specific examples of a concept, then we classify a new stimulus by how closely it

Exemplar

Each of these examples is called

Schema

Generalized, well-integrated knowledge about a situation, an event, or a person

Basic Building blocks for representing thoughts and people

Schema Theory

How people process complex situation and events

Functions of Schema

Information Processing, Memory, Expectations

Practical Application of Schema

College life, Relationship, family

Schema Therapy

Developed by Jeffrey Young, PhD

Integrative psychotherapy: CBT, psychoanalysis, etc

Address and modify schema or lifetraps

Script

A type of schema

Simple, well-structured sequence of events

A prototype of a series of events that share an underlying similarity

Consent

Permission to give or do something

Communication every step of the way

Typical relationship consent script

Life Scripts

List of events that a person believes would be most important throughout their lifetime

Influence how individuals perceive and respond to various situations

Minor Event

People tend to remember information accurately when it is consistent with a schema

People do not remember information that is inconsistent with schema

Major Event

People remembers information that is inconsistent with schema

Confirmation bias, cognitive bias

Abstraction

Memory process that stores the meaning of a message rather than the exact words

Constructive Model of Memory

People integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct larger idea

We engage in active reconstruction of memory

Susceptible to errors, distortions, and inaccuracies.

Pragmatic View of Memory

We need to accurately recall the gist of a sentence

We do not need to remember specific wording of the sentences