Psychology 1001-Module 5: Stress and Health

Stimulus-Based Definition of Stress

A demanding or threatening event or situation, characterizing stress as something that causes certain reactions. This definition fails to recognize that people differ in how they view and react to challenging life events and situations.

Response-Based Definition of Stress

The physiological responses that occur when faced with demanding or threatening situations, they label stress as environmental conditions

Hans Selye

An endocrinologist who used a response-based definition for stress, saying that classed stress based on the body’s physiological reactions to any demand that is placed on it. Through a study conducted at McGill he discovered that prolonged exposure to negative stimuli induced physiological affects to rats

Stress

A process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he appraises as overwhelming or threatening to his well-being. How we react or judge stressors. Has health implications

Stressors

Environmental events may be judged as threatening or demanding; stimuli that initiate the stress process. Involve two types of appraisals

Primary Appraisal

Involves judgment about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might entail. Would be labelled a threat if it is anticipated that it could result in any sort of negative consequence

Secondary Appraisal

After a threat is perceived, this is the judgment of the options available to cope with a stressor, as well as perceptions of how effective such options will be

Appraising an event as harmful and believes that nothing will be able to help…

results in a state of stress

Not appraising an even as harmful and believes they can adapt and overcome…

unlikely to experience stress

Eustress

Good stress, pushes us to do things in our best interests; studying for tests, going to the doctor, exercising, etc.

Distress

Bad stress, feeling burned out, fatigued, exhausted, and performance begins to decline; if the stress constantly remains at this level health may begin to erode

Health Psychology

A subfield of psychology devoted to understanding the importance of psychological influences on health, illness, and how people respond when they become ill. Emerged as a discipline in the 1970s. Investigate why people make lifestyle choices, the effectiveness of those interventions, and deciding who is at risk for negative health outcomes

The jump of stress levels from 2006-2009 in individuals who were men, Hispanics between 45-65, college graduates, and those with full-time employment was largely due to…

the economic downturn of 2008/2009, impacting job security and therefore pentions

Walter Cannon

An American physiologist at Harvard Medical School, the first to identify the body’s physiological reactions to stress. He named the fight-or-flight response

Fight-or-Flight Response

Occurs when a person experiences very strong emotions, normally associated with a perceived threat. During this time the body is rapidly aroused by activation of both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system. A mechanism that helps maintain homeostasis, helping adjust to internal and external threats.

Examples of physiological responses to a stressor

Pupils dilate, heart rate increases, muscle tense and may tremble, perspiration begins, respiration quickens

General Adaptation Syndrome

The body’s nonspecific physiological response to stress, discovered by Hans Selye. Consisting of three stages; alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion. Response-based conceptualization of stress, which ignores the psychological factors such as appraisal and interpretation of threats and focuses more on the physical responses

Alarm Reaction

The body’s immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or emergency, and it is roughly analogous to the fight-or-flight response. During this stage you are alerted to a stressor, then your body bombards you with physiological reactions to help manage the situation

Stage of Resistance

The stage that is entered due when a stressor is prolonged, the initial shock of the stressor has worn off and the body had adapted to the stressor. The body continues to be on alert and is prepared to respond as it would have in the alarm reaction stage, however, it is with less intensity

Stage of Exhaustion

Even longer exposure to a stressor, the person is no longer able to adapt to the stressor in this stage. The ability to resist becomes depleted because physical wear takes its toll on the body’s tissues and organs. Very serious damage (illness or death) can occur

What systems work behind the physiological mechanisms of stress?

The sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.

Stress’ Pathway

Alarm reaction → the sympathetic nervous system triggers arousal through the release of adrenaline in the adrenal glands → activates the fight-or-flight response/// the HPA axis becomes active at this time → the hypothalamus releases corticotrophin-releasing factor which causes the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) → ACTH activates the adrenal glands to secrete a number of hormones into the bloodstream, cortisol is an important one

Cortisol

Commonly known as the stress hormone and provides a boost of energy when we first encounter a stressor it also improves immune system function temporarily and decreases pain sensitivity. However, sustained levels of this hormone weaken out immune system

Chronic Stressors

An event that persists over an extended period of time, for example, caring for a parent with dementia, long-term unemployment, or imprisonment

Acute Stressors

Brief focal events that sometimes continue to be experienced as overwhelming well after the event has ended, for example, falling on an icy sidewalk and breaking your leg

Examples of Traumatic Events

Military combat, threatened or actual physical assault, terror5ist attacks, natural disasters, and automobile accidents

Women report experiencing a lower number of traumatic events than the following groups:

Men, non-Whites, and individuals in lower socioeconomic status (SES) groups

PTSD

A chronic stress reaction characterized by experiences and behaviours that may include intrusive and painful memories of the stressor event, jumpiness, persistent negative emotional states, detachment from others, angry outbursts, and avoidance of reminders of the event

Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe

Examined the link between life stressors and physical illness, stating that life events requiring significant change in a persons normal life routine are stressful, the developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

Consisting of 43 life events that require varying degrees of personal readjustment, there are many pleasant events on this list such as holidays and marriage, although those fall under eustress. A cluster of these events can increase the risk of developing physical illness.

Life Change Units (LCUs)

An estimate on how much readjustment participants felt each event would require, in the study by Holmes and Rahe

100 LCUs

Death of a spouse

73 LCUs

divorce

63 LCUs

death of a close family member

53 LCUs

personal injury or illness

50 LCUs

marriage

47 LCUs

job termination

38 LCUs

change in financial state

36 LCUs

change to different line of work

28 LCUs

outstanding personal achievement

26 LCUs

beginning or ending school

25 LCUs

change in living conditions

20 LCUs

change in working hours or conditions, change in residence, change in schools

18 LCUs

change in social activities

16 LCUs

change in sleeping habits

15 LCUs

change in eating habits

13 LCUs

vacation

11 LCUs

minor violations of the law

Very popular and used in hundreds of studies; easy way to assess the amount of stress in peoples lives

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

Criticism for the Social Readjustment Rating Scale

→ questions are too vague

→ undesirable life events are often more stressful than desirable ones

→ the scale does not take into account respondents’ appraisals of the life events it contains ( not everyone views events in the same way)

Daily Hassles

Minor irritations and annoyances thar are part of our everyday lives, they may build on one another and leave us just as stressed as life changing events. A better indicator of both physical and psychological health than life change units

Cyber Hassles

Occurring on socia

Occupation-Related Stressors

Difficult, demanding, or unsafe working conditions that are often endured on a regular basis. Certain jobs are at a higher risk for these types of stressors

Stressors: Police Officer

Physical dangers, excessive paperwork, dealing with the court system, tense interactions, life-and-death decision making

Stressors: Firefighter

Uncertainty over whether a serious fire or hazard awaits after an alarm, potential for extreme physical danger

Stressors: Social Worker

Little positive feedback from jobs or from the public, unsafe work environments, frustration in dealing with bureaucracy, excessive paperwork, sense of personal responsibility for clients, work overload

Stressors: Teacher

Excessive paperwork, lack of adequate supplies or facilities, work overload, lack of positive feedback, threat of physical violence, lack of support from parents and administrators

Stressors: Nurse

Work overload, heavy physical work, patient concerns (dealing with death and medical concerns), interpersonal problems with other medical staff (especially physicians)

Stressors: Emergency Medical Worker

Unpredictable and extreme nature of the job, inexperience

Stressors: Clerical and Secretarial Work

Few opportunities for advancement, unsupportive supervisors, work overload, lack of perceived control

Stressors: Managerial Work

Work overload, conflict and ambiguity in defining the managerial role, difficult work relationships

Job Strain

A work situation that combines excessive job demands and workload with little discretion in decision making or job control, caused by chronic occupational stress. Also known to have adverse consequences on physical and mental health

Job Burnout

A general sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism in relation to one’s job, more common among people in human service jobs. Occurs in three dimensions

Exhaustion→ First Dimension of Job Burnout

A sense that one’s emotional resources are drained or that one is at the end of their rope and has nothing more to give at a psychological level

Depersonalization→ Second Dimension of Job Burnout

A sense of emotional detachment between the worker and the recipients of his services, often resulting in callous, cynical, or indifferent attitudes towards these individuals

Diminished Personal Accomplishment→ Third Dimension of Job Burnout

The tendency to evaluate one’s work negatively nu experiencing dissatisfaction with one’s job-related accomplishments or feeling as though one has categorically failed to influence others’ lives through one’s work

One of the greatest risk factors for job burnout…

Job Strain

Who is most at risk for job burnout?

Older workers (ages 55-64), unmarried, and those in jobs that involve more manual labour

Symptoms of job burnout:

Heavy alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, being overweight, physical or lifetime mental disorders, depression

Psychophysiological disorders

Physical disorders or diseases whose symptoms are brought about or worsened by stress and emotional factors

Cardiovascular

hypertension, coronary heart disease

Gastrointestinal

irritable bowel syndrome

Respiratory

asthma, allergy

Musculoskeletal

low back pain, tension headaches

Skin

acne, eczema, psoriasis

Neuroticism

A personality trait that reflects how anxious, moody, and sad one is. Has been identified as a risk factor for chronic health problems and mortality

Immune System

The body’s surveillance system;' consisting of a variety of structures, cells, and mechanisms that serve to protect the body from invading microorganisms that can harm or damage the body’s tissues and organs

Autoimmune Disease

When your body mistakes your own healthy cells for invaders and repeatedly attacks them. This may occur in any part of the body

Rheumatoid Arthritis

An autoimmune disease that affects the joints, resulting in joint pain, stiffness, and loss of function

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

An autoimmune disease that affects the skin, can result in rashes and swelling of the skin

Grave’s Disease

An autoimmune disease that affects the thyroid gland, can result in fatigue, weight gain, and muscle aches

Immunosuppression

The decreased effectiveness of the immune system, when it breaks down is unable to do its job. Makes people very susceptible to any number of infections, illness, and diseases

Psychoneuroimmunology

The field that studies how psychological factors such as stress influence the immune system and immune functioning. This field evolved from the discovery of the connection between the central nervous system and the immune system

Evidence for the connection between the immune system and the brain…

that immune responses could be classically conditioned in animals

Stress hormones released during HPA axis activation adversely impact immune function especially by inhibiting the production of

lymphocytes

Lymphocytes

White blood cells that circulate in the body’s fluids that are important in the immune response

Heart Disease

A cardiovascular disorder (psychophysiological disorder), causing approximately 1/3 deaths in the USA and is the leading cause of death in the developed world

Symptoms of Heart Disease (Male)

Lightheadedness, perspiration, chest pain and pressure, stomach pain, shortness of breath

Symptoms of Heart Attack (Female)

Dizziness, anxiety, back and neck pain, shortness of breath, nausea and vomiting

Angina

Chest pain or discomfort that occur when the heart does not receive enough blood

Hypertension

High blood pressure; a major risk factor for heart disease (heart attack, stroke, heart failure, kidney failure, and blindness). Forces a person’s heart to pump harder, in turn placing more physical strain on the heart. Silent killer because it has no symptoms

Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disorders

Social determinants; ageing, income, education, employment status, and diabetes

Behavioural Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Disorders

Unhealthy diet, tobacco use, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol consumption, and obesity

Stressors linked to cardiovascular problems

jpb strain, natural disasters, martial conflict, and exposure to high traffic noise levels at one’s home

Things that elevate blood pressure

mental arithmetic under time pressure, immersing one’s hand into ice water, mirror tracing, and public speaking

Type A

Individuals who are intensively driven workaholics who are preoccupied with deadlines and always seem to be in a rush. Having an aggressive and chronic struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time. Other characteristics include; excessive competitive drive, chronic sense of time urgency, impatience and hostility towards others

Type B

Individuals who are more relaxed and laid back

Which personality type is seven times more susceptible to heart disease?

Type A

The anger/hostility dimension of Type A behaviour pattern is linked to…

heart disease

Negative Affectivity

The tendency to experience distressed emotional states involving anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness. It is linked with the development of both hypertension and heart disease