PSY 120 exam 3

development is \___.

lifelong

development depends on \___.

history and context

development is \___ and \___.

multidirectional, multidimensional

only \___% of fertilized eggs survive two weeks to make it to implantation

10-20

the single cell zygote develops to an \___, then to a \___.

embryo, fetus

embryos are \___.

vulnerable

chromosomal disorders can lead to \___.

spontaneous abortion (miscarriage)

proper maternal nutrition is \___.

vital

examples of what malnutrition can lead to

- birth defects
- low birth weight
- stillbirth

maternal age outside of optimal range can \___.

pose difficulties for both teens and 35+

external/environmental contaminants that can penetrate the maternal protections of pregnancy and cause harm to the fetus

teratogens

examples of teratogens

- medical drugs
- environmental pollution
- alcohol
- nicotine
- illegal drugs

medical drugs

thalidomide and birth defects

environmental pollution

lead paints can affect cognitive development

alcohol

fetal alcohol syndrome

nicotine

learning disorders, low birth weight, SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)

illegal drugs

children born addicted

senses develop according to \___.

stimulation

binocular depth perception by \___ months

4-5

20/20 vision by \__ months

6

preferences on hearing, tastes, and \___ already present at birth

odors

reflexes are innate, unlearned, \___ behaviors.

adaptive

reflex examples

grasping, stepping, basic swim reflex

Piaget's theory

states that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor stage

learning and thought is centered on the senses and the motor skills

sensorimotor lasts from birth until about \__ years old

2

babies have no sense of \___ in sensorimotor

object permanence

the end goal of the sensorimotor stage is \___.

mental representation

preoperational stage

follows the onset of mental representation at the end of sensorimotor stage

advances and refinements from sensorimotor stage include the ability to

manipulate information in the mind, but with limitations

centration stage

a tendency to focus on only one dimension of a problem (can't do conservation tasks)

conservation task

requires children to recognize that changing the appearance or form of an object does not change its quantity

egocentrism

a tendency to only be able to reason about a problem from one's own viewpoint

three mountain problem

Piaget's experiments, shown a 3-D model of a mountain scene. they were asked to observe the model from their perspective and were then asked to describe the persons point of view from different angles. (children under 8 demonstrated egocentrism, later research shows non-egocentric behaviors in children as young as 3)

Piaget's concrete operations

- onset of logical, but not abstract thought
- greater aptitude in using mental representations
- now able to reason better in multiple dimensions (improves conservation, allows ability to use maps for finding directions, allows greater aptitude with math
- main limitation is with respect to abstract thought (child cannot fully comprehend non-concrete concepts)

Piaget's formal operations

- ability to think abstractly
- can now deal with abstract concepts without concrete representation (life, death, the self, morality, abstract math)
- able to deal with hypothetical-deductive reasoning (evolution of "what if" ability for abstractions)
- why the progress?
+ brain maturation - synaptic pruning
+ greater experience leads to shifts in schemes

synaptic pruning

a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not used are lost

Piaget's model essentially stops at \___.

adolescence

adolescent thought faces these barriers

- argumentativeness
- indecisiveness
- finding fault with authority
- self-consciousness (the imaginary audience)
- assumption of invulnerability (dangers with driving, recklessness, drugs, etc.)

the imaginary audience

adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern

weaknesses of Piaget's model

- he tended to underestimate the capabilities of young children
- tasks used were too abstract
- many skills arrive earlier, but he didn't have the methodology to test earlier
- violation of expectations paradigm

violation of expectations paradigm

babies will stare more at novel or surprising things

behaviorism

gender identity is based on reinforcement and punishment
- adults treat boys and girls differently in the way they play, perform in school
- other kids punish atypical behavior
- includes social learning

social learning

process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others

development of gender identity

- behaviorism
- cognitive

cognitive

children categorize or develop gender schemata

gender schemata

- propositions and prototypes
- used to define sexes and expectations
- built on input from all aspects of the local environment

parenting styles

- authoritarian
- permissive
- authoritative

authoritarian parenting

- everything related to authority, no reasoning
- demand strict conformity, no questioning
- strict punishment for rules violations
- children are more likely than peers to end up withdrawn, distrustful

permissive parenting

- value self-expression at the expense of structure
- not demanding, rarely punish
- children tend to be disruptive, immature, undisciplined

authoritative parenting

- firm, but loving
- emphasize social rules, but within context of individual values
- use reason in explaining punishments and rules
- children feel more secure, more self-confident and exploratory

disciplinary methods

- power assertion
- induction
- withdrawal of love

power assertion

reliance on authority
- physical discipline often stimulates aggression
- more likely from fathers
- least effective for generalizing discipline to other situations

induction

attempt to reason with the child
- better for extending discipline to social situations

withdrawal of love

ignoring, isolation

adolescence

changes across all dimensions (physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and the self)

diet and eating disorders

- obesity
- anorexia
- bulimia

obesity

- increased consumption of high-fat foods
- less exercise

anorexia and bulimia

85-95% female (male can manifest via body-building)
- greater emphasis on body appearance
- uncertainty of how to deal with physical changes
- pressures to excel in certain activities
- based in distortion of body image
- need for control
- also may have genetic component

physical development

as metabolism settles post-adolescence, it's important to get exercise and eat well

transitions of adulthood

- single life
- couple life
- married
- children
- stages of career from entry to accomplished
- grandparenthood
- retirement

middle adulthood

- least studied, maybe least appreciated part of life
- hard to even define the ages
- relatively recent term, partly because of extended life expectancy
- something people don't look forward to
- declines in sensory/physical performance
- menopause

midlife crisis

- emerged in the 70s
- research doesn't support it
- some suggestion of a midlife review (much the same, though not so much a crisis)
- reflected in an stemmed from normative crisis models (especially from Erikson's stage of generativity stagnation)

generativity vs. stagnation

Erikson's stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service

midlife review

introspective examination that often occurs in middle age, leading to reappraisal and revision of values and priorities

aging population

- 85+ is the fastest-growing population group
- healthier lifestyles, better medical care
- smaller young families decrease proportion of young people

\___ on average live longer than \___.

women, men

\___ have the longest life expectancy

Asian-Americans

Asian-Americans and Caucasians on average outlive \___ and \___.

African-Americans, Hispanic-Americans

ratio of women:men by age 80

2:1

types of aging

- primary
- secondary

primary aging

inevitable process of deterioration

secondary aging

- product of abuse, disease, poor care
- leads to functional age - how old your abilities are relative to your chronological age

theories as to why we age

- genetic
- environmental

dementia

deterioration in cognitive functioning from physiological causes

Alzheimer's disease

a highly heritable, progressive, degenerative neurological disorder characterized by irreversible deterioration in memory, intelligence and awareness, leading to death

facts about Alzheimer's disease

- effects appear in reverse order of brain development
- more cases now because more people reach old age
- early signs often confused as just effects of aging
- diagnosed by testing, but only confirmed by autopsy

motivation

the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal

what makes us do what we do

two types of motivation

- intrinsic
- extrinsic

intrinsic motivation

the pursuit of activity because of internal factors (learning for the sake of learning, Jerry Seinfeld and comedy)

extrinsic motivation

the pursuit of an activity because of external factors (acting or sports for money and fame)

motivation is often \___.

complex

sometimes extrinsic motivation can \___ intrinsic motivation

overwhelm

motivation study with children

- the 1st group of children were told they would receive a ribbon for playing with markers. the 2nd group was unaware of this reward until after they played with the markers, where they were given one. the 3rd group was not told or given a ribbon.
- in a different setting, the 1st group played less with the markers than the other two

overjustification effect

the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing

they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

- we are motivated by needs not being met, from the bottom and working upward to self-actualization
- individual needs vary, however, and Maslow's model has lacked empirical support

theories of motivation

- drive (reduction) theory
- primary drive
- secondary drive
- optimal arousal theory
- self-determination theory

drive (reduction) theory

- organisms seek to exist in a state of homeostasis (an optimal balance) within various biological needs
- if we deviate from homeostasis, we will experience a drive to address and reduce that need

primary drive

those that are biological and innate

secondary drive

those that are conditioned and learned

optimal arousal theory

- we are motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological and psychological arousal
- if underaroused, we become bored, but if overaroused, we may feel stressed and overwhelmed

self-determination theory

- we are motivated by intrinsic goals, and want to feel like we are in control of our destiny
- focused on autonomy, competence, and relatedness within social groups

autonomy

independence

competence

qualified and capable of performing a task

relatedness

the socially recognized ties that connect people in a variety of different ways

\___ are an important component of motivation.

goals

to enhance motivation, goals should be \___ and \___.

specific, achievable

continued frustration in not setting achievable goals can contribute to \___.

learned helplessness