AP Psych Unit 7

Memory

learning that has persisted over time, through storage and retrieval of information

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

How do psychologists use memory models?

To think and communicate about memory

What three process do information processing models involve?

1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retreival

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Parallel Processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously

Retrievalterm-7

the process of getting information out of memory storage

How does parallel processing affect cognition?

It allows the brain to process things simultaneously.

How does the connectionism information processing model view memory?

As products of interconnected neural networks

What are the three processing stages in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model?

1. Sensory memory
2. Short-term memory
3. Long-term memory

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-Term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the 7 digit of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored of forgotten

Long-Term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system- includes knowledge skills and experience

Working Memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

What is the role of the central exectutive in working memeory?

focuses attention and pulls info from long term memeory to make sense of new info

What are explicit (declarative memories)

Our conscious memories of facts and experiences that develop with effortful processing

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

What are implicit (nondeclarative) memories?

Memories of skills and classically conditioned associations that occur without our awareness through automatic processing

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

How are sensory and working memory related?

Sensory memory feeds some information into working memory for active processing there

Define time

encoding the sequence of events

Dfine frequency:

How many times things happen

Define space:

visualizing location of info

Rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

Ionic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Define the limits of short term memory?

Short term memory capacity is about seven items, plus or minus two

What factors influence working memory capacity?

Age, intelligence level

Spacing Effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice

Testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

Serial Position Effect

our tendency to recall better the last and first items in a list

Visual Encoding

the encoding of picture images

Acoustic Encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

Semantic Encoding

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

What are some effortful processing strategies?

1. Chunking
2. Memories
3, Hierarchies
4. Distributed Practice

Imagery

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

Mnemonic Devices

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

What is chunking?

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

What are heirarchies

a fe broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

Rosy Retrospection

a happy fact for life- for most people the negative emotion recalled from bad events fades more rapidly than the positive emotion recalled from good events

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

What affects long-term retention?

Depth of processing

What is deep processing?

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

What is shallow processing?

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

What are the limits of long term memory?

Essentially limitless

How are memories stored in the brain?

They are not stored in intact, single brain spts. Many parts of the brain interact as we form and retrieve memories.

What are the two types of explicit memory?

episodic and semantic

Episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

Semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

What two parts of the brain are dedicated to explicit memory processing?

Frontal lobes and hippocampus

What is the hippocampus?

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

How does the hippocampus aid in explicit memory processing?

registers and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories before moving them to the other brain regions

Memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

What action supports neural storage?

Sleep

What brain area plays a key role in forming and storing implicit memories?

cerebellum and basal ganglia

What is the cerebellum's role in storing implicit memory?

important for storing classically conditioned memories

What is the basal ganglia's role in implicit memory?

Involved in motor movment and helps form procedural memories for skills

Long-Term Potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation- believed to be a neural basis for memory and learning

What happens in LTP?

neurons become more efficient in releasing and sensing the presence of neurotransmitters, and more connections develop between neurons.

Flashbulb Memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant memory or event

How are flashbulb memories formed?

emotional arousal causes an outpouring of stress hormones, which lead to activity in the brain's memory forming areas.

Amnesia

the loss of memory

Implicit Memory

retention independent of conscious recollection- processed in the cerebellum

Procedural Memory

related to implicit memory- motor skills, such as riding a bike or playing an instrument

Explicit Memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare-processed in the hipppocampus

Infantile Amnesia

the implicit reactions and skills we learned during infancy reach far into our future, yet as adults we recall nothing(explicitly) of our first 3 years

What are the two main causes of infantile amnesia?

1. We index much of our explicit memory with the command of language
2. The hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to fully develop

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

State-Dependent Memory

what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state

Mood-Congruent Memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

Deja Vu

the eerie sense that I've experienced this before"- cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

Three Sins of Forgetting

absent mindedness, transience, blocking

Three Sins of Distortion

misattribution, suggestibility, bias

One Sin of Intrusion

persistence

How can retrieval problems arise?

Via proactive and retroactive amnesia

Proactive Interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive Interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memory

What is reconsolidation?

Repeatedly replaying memories may alter them, leading to the introduction of inaccuracies

Misinformation Effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory on an event

Source Amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined- at the heart of many false memories

What is a main debate between memory researchers and therapists?

whether childhood memories are repressed and can be uncovered during therapy

Which demographic is especially susceptible to the misinformation effect? What can prevent this?

Children, but if questioned in neutral words they understand, they can accurately recall events and people involved in them

What strategies are found to bes imporove memeory?

1. Make material meaningful
2. Study repeatedly
3. Activate retrieval cues
4. Mnemonics
5. Sleep more
6. Minimize interference
7. Sleep more
8. Test Yourself

Eye Witness Recall

someone claiming to have seen an event recalls details from it- they often misconstuct the information

Elizabeth Loftus

revealed how easily memories can be reconstructed

What is cognition?

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Concepts

a mental group of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

How are concepts used?

To simplify the world around us

Prototypes

a mental image of best example of a category

Creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

What is creativity supported by?

Aptitude or the ability to learn
Intelligence
Working memory

What are obstacles to problem solving?

confirmation bias and fixation

Convergent thinking

the ability to provide one correct answer