Empire - 1857-1914

1875

80% ships ships in Suez Canal were British

1869

Suez Canal opened
-GB bank loans to Egyptian gov saw opportunity to profit
-Cape Colony less important

1878

Anglo-French intervention of Egypt
-dual economic control
-French controlled gov spending
-GB responsible for raising revenue
-pressured Sultan to replace Ismail with more compliant son Tewfik Pasha 1879
-Interest rates cut to 5%, sales tax introduced on food and goods, gov employees wages cut
-starvation in upper Egypt
-unemployment, rioting and military rebellion

1861-5

Egyptian cotton vital to GB as American Civil War halted cotton production

1873-96

Great Depression
-attraction of Africa as a source of raw materials and new markets
-expansion (esp France) beyond coastal trading settlements
-Germany wanted 'a place in the sun'
-Imperial trade had sheltered GB

6,000

miles Suez Canal reduced journey to India by
-2 weeks off journey time

1806

Cape Colony seized by British in Napoleonic wars
-temperate climate and deep water port advantageous over other ports
-protected sea route to Middle East, China, Aus & India

1858

David Livingstone went to Africa to make 'open path for commerce and christianity'

1888

Gambia charted company

1888

Uganda chartered company

1884-5

Northern and Southern Nigeria chartered company

1890

acceleration of Scramble for Africa
-previously reactive

40%

% of Egypt's imports coming from GB 1870s

1863

Ismail Pasha comes to power in Egypt
-committed to modernisation, first initially launched by Ottoman ruler Muhammad Ali Pasha 1805-48
-projects: irrigation, railways, schools, Suez Canal

1517

Egypt and Sudan part of Ottoman Empire
-autonomous status in Empire until Khedive Ismail Pasha until 1879, who ran affairs in Egypt for the Sultan in Constantinople

1854

Frenchman Ferdinand de Lesseps permission to create a canal open to ships of all nations connecting the Mediterranean to the Red Sea
-opened 1869 as Suez Canal
-France encouraged Egypt to break away from Ottomans
-GB originally thought not beneficial as wouldn't fit big ships
-jointly owned by Egypt and France

1875

Khedive sought to sell shares in Suez Canal
-Disraeli used a secret £4m loan from Rotschild banking family to secure 44% stake in canal
-bypassed parliament and Bank of England
-Disraeli to Queen Victoria: 'it's settled, you have it madam'

1000

miles of railway track laid after GB gave loans to Egypt's gov after Suez Canal purchase 1875
-Alexandria developed into major port
-Egyptian army re-equipped with GB weapons
-schools, roads and public buildings invested in

1863-79

Egypt's debt grew £3m-£100m
-Interest rate on debt 7%-20%
-by 1875, debt threatened economic collapse
-Khedive owed allegiance to Sultan of Turkey but turned to GB and France for economic help

1876

GB treasury Cave sent to investigate debt in Egypt
-reported crisis due to poor economic management by gov and swift rise in interest rates, but loans affordable

1882

Egyptian Nationalist Movement: Colonel Arabi Pasha
-aimed to end Turkish control of Egyptian gov

June 1882

Law and order collapsed in Egypt - British PM Gladstone (Liberal) ordered naval bombardment of Alexandria and army invasion
-ordered formal occupation without the French

October 1882

Egyptian Nationalist Rebellion crushed at Battle of Tel-el-Kebir
-GB became gov of Egypt: kept Khedive as figurehead: facade
-GB ended Anglo-French control
-France suspected GB used nationalist uprising as an excuse to dominate Egypt: British-French tension lasted until 1904 at Entente Cordiale
-Egypt retained control of Sudan

1821

Sudan under Egypt's control
-Egypt mismanagement and corruption caused widespread disruption and dissent in Sudan
-European attempts to end the slave trade damaged the Sudanese economy

1881

Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abd (the Mahdi) announced himself as the 'redeemer of the Islamic faith'
-formed an Islamist rebellion against the Ottoman/Egyptian state and influence of European powers
-his followers (Ansar or Dervishes) defeated a 4,000 strong and well-equipped Egyptian force 1883
-Mahdi skilfully transformed opposition into a Jihadist army to fight 'holy war' of liberation
-surrounded Khartoum: joint British-Egyptian force defeated, and commander Col William Hicks killed

317

days General Gordon held out for in Khartoum
-sent to organise GB & Egyptian evacuation of Khartoum: evacuated 2,500 civilians
-against orders, retained fighting troop to defend city
-gov backed down to public pressure and relief column sent Nov 1884, arrived 2 days after Khartoum captured by Mahdi and Gordon beheaded
-GB gov unwilling to take military action

1807

slavery outlawed in British Empire

1868

became Liberal Party
-Laisserz faire: free trade and minimal intervention
-reducing Crown and Church of England powers
-splendid isolationism
-social reform
-1880s more progressive liberalism emerged: larger state role in welfare
-Gladstone (4), Asquith (1), Lloyd George (1)

1830s/40s

emerged as the Conservative Party
-opposed free trade but accepted it 1850s on
-support for tradition, royal family, Church of England
-strong military interventionism, slow moderate reform
-Party of Empire
-anti-socialist
-Earl of Derby, Salisbury, Disraeli

1900

Labour Party formed

1801

Colonial Office created (combined with War Office)

1854

Colonial Office separated from War Office and 5 separate sub-departments: N.America, Aus, W.Indies, Africa and Mediterranean
-did not have responsibility for all GB possessions overseas
-dominions largely self-governing but reported to CO
-Crown Colonies run by local Governor appointed by gov, but accountable to CO
-some protectorates and other areas came under Foreign Office, e.g Egypt

1858

separate India Office created with own Secretary of State
-reflected importance of India to GB Empire
-reaction to challenge of control in Indian Mutiny 1857

280m

population of India compared to UK 28m

70%

% of India that were Hindus
-20% Muslim
-Sikh and minority Christians
-Caste system only applied to Hindus
-determined by birth, couldn't leave caste unless out-caste
-marriage took place within caste

1773

GB established Calcutta as India's capital
-moved from Mughals Delhi
-other major cities Bombay (Mumbai), Madras, Bangalore, Lucknow

16x

times India is bigger than GB by
-India 4mkm2
-GB 244,820km2
-population 10x bigger in India than GB

1600

East India Company founded to rival Dutch East India Company in Indonesia and Spice Islands
-£26,000 of pepper could sell for £208,000 in London
-traded in chintzes (textiles), indigo (dye), saltpetre (fertiliser/explosives), rice
-traded Opium with China in exchange for tea: GB forced free trade with China in Opium Wars
-GB EIC confined to coastal settlements of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta
-ruling Mughals slowly collapsed over time
-rivalry grew between GB & France: France defeated by GB for control of trade on coast

October 1856-October 1860

Second Opium Wars with China - GB forced free trade with China

1500

Mughal Empire - slowly collapsed over time due to rise of British Empire

Robert Clive

Initially EIC had acted simply as traders - example of a company man who made massive fortunes

1834

EIC ceased to be just a trading company
-effectively gov of India in some regions as the weakened Mughals gave GB greater power
-EIC acted as administrators, civil servants, tax collectors and judiciary
-EIC private army and navy
-considerable wealth
-answerable only to shareholders back in London
-raised concerns back in London

1783

Treaty of Paris ending Seven Years War
-GB and France both wanted India, but France's India military/political influence removed
-massive growth in military activity and profits of EIC

1773

GB created the role of Governor General in Bengal appointed by gov to provide oversight
-political fears that EIC had betrayed parliament, dishonoured GB and subverted Parliament

17th February 1843

Sind Wars between Sindh and EIC
-EIC victory and further additions to area under GB control

1845-9

Punjab Wars between EIC and Sikh Empire
-EIC victory and further additions to area under GB control

Doctrine of Lapse

Hindu states where the ruler died without a natural heir would 'lapse' to GB rule
-70% India Hindus

early 1800s

reforms intended to Westernise India
-Introduction of English style education and courts
-outlawing of Sati-burning of widows on husband's funeral pyres
-activities of missionaries

2nd August 1858

Government of India Act transferred all EIC political power to GB crown
-creation of Secretary of State for Indian and Council of India with 15 advisors
-Governor-General became Viceroy: emphasised fact he was monarch's representative in India and head of gov in India

1857

Government of India Act 1858 led to far greater GB and European investment after this year

1st May 1876

Disraeli pushed through the Royal Titles Bill in Parliament making Queen Victoria Empress of India - celebrated 1st January 1877

1859

GB sought greater support from loyal majority of India's princes
-removed doctrine of lapse
-created and elaborate hierarchy of status amongst princes in return for accepting GB rule

1

number of Indian tea plantations 1851

295

number of Indian tea plantations 1871

1833

EIC's monopoly on trade in India ended
-Increasing number of GB and European traders and merchants already started to establish themselves

15,000

miles of railway in India by 1880

1857

Victorian morals outraged by tales of torture, rape and killing of women and children

1857

Universities established in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras
-elite schools (Mayo Colleges) set up to produce 'Westernised Oriental Gentlemen' (WOGs)

1/3

proportion of educated Indians who entered into public administration - hundreds of schools founded and tens of thousands of Indians educated 1857-77

1835

GB style education championed by Macaulay in India

10th May 1857

Indian Mutiny - caused by:
-started with refusal of Sepoys to use greased cartridges containing animal fat (cows/pigs sacred)
-missionary activity in India and westernisation
-poor military pay and conditions
-economic concerns: high rent
-GB annexation of land
-Enfield rifles' cartridges: had to be bit off
-caste system: Sepoys serving overseas would be out-caste
-Governor-General Dalhousie deprived landlords of their lands: resentment
Failed to gain widespread support:
-majority of Indians pro-British
-Sikhs and Gurkhas remained loyal

2:1

ratio of Indian to British personnel after Indian Mutiny
-Indian troops drawn from loyal elements, e.g Sikhs and Gurkhas

6:1

ratio of Indian to British personnel pre Indian Mutiny

1000

number of GB civil servants in the Indian Civil Service
-ran the Raj
-ICS District Officers oversaw each district and councils
-each province, e.g Bengal, had GB appointed governor
-Viceroy ruled India via Legislative Council
-challenging examination to get into ICS
-good prospects, salary and status
-very hard work, isolated, needed initiative and stamina
-open to all graduates but exam was in English and had to be taken in London
-day to day running of India relied on cooperation and collaboration of native population (babus, princes)

babus

Indians with western education

35-40%

% of India ruled by Princely states 1858
-princes had authority over subjects lives
-treaties with UK: under UK's protection so GB still in control
-GB political officers resident in the states
-GB could and did intervene if state was being misgoverned, deposing rulers if necessary

562

number of separate states ruled by Princes in India 1858
-pop varied from 14m-few hundred

40,000

fewer than _ GB in troops in India pre 1857

1880

70,000 GB troops and 125,000 native troops

62/74

number of Bengali regiments disbanded after Indian Mutiny - Bengal hotspot
-native regiments trained and stationed in separate districts to be kept apart
-favoured Gurkha and Sikh troops owing to loyalty
-all artillery in GB officers and GB troops hands only
-officers instructed to show greater respect for sepoy beliefs

3,000

miles of railway track laid after Indian Mutiny - economic purposes, but also allowed rapid deployment of troops
-creation of armoured gun trains to project power

Canning

1st Viceroy of India
-created Imperial police force to supply army
-highly trained professionals and fierce fighters
-no cost to GB taxpayer (paid for by Indian taxes)
-ready for deployment anywhere in India

7,000

number of Indian troops used in Egypt to suppress Arabi Pasha's revolt 1882

1884-1900

Scramble for Africa
-Inter-European race for land acquisition of the African continent
-African land swiftly marked out and converted to European colonies
-rivalries between European powers
-rivalries between European powers and indigenous Africans
-rivalries between African rulers themselves

1871

Germany united - threatened balance of power
-Industrial and commercial might
-expanding merchant navy
-France recovered from German defeat with increased military spending and determination to assert world power

1884

Russian industrialised and expanded in Asia reaching Afghanistan
-railway construction towards India
-Great Game

1860s

France established influence in Indochina - GB responded by annexations

1874

GB annexed Malaya

1881

GB annexed Sarawak

1885

GB annexed Brunei, upper Burma, Thailand as a buffer

1891

Russian railway construction towards China

12th September 1876

Brussels Conference hosted by King Leopold 2 of the Belgians
-conference if explorers and leaders of geographical societies
-concluded Africans incapable of developing natural resources, so Europeans must intervene
-roads and railway network required to link great lakes
-an International African Association required to coordinate efforts
-European Govs suspicions raised over Leopold's motivations

Stanley

GB's representative at Brussels Conference 1876 - signs 450 treaties with local chiefs

Brazza

France's representative at Brussels Conference 1876 - extend control from Senegal to West Sudan

Nachtigal

Germany's representative at Brussels Conference 1876

80%

% of African territory still under local rule 1884

1884-5

Berlin Conference hosted by Bismark of Germany with major powers GB, France, Portugal and Germany
-Initial task to secure agreement that the basins and mouths of Congo and Niger rivers were to remain neutral and open to trade
-established principle of effective occupation
-occupation legitimate unless challenged by a rival claim

General Act

signed at Berlin Conference 1885, promising
-all nations permitted trade in the basin of Congo and its outlets
-free trade in these regions
-powers with influence should protect indigenous people and stop slavery
-powers should support and protect religious, scientific, or charitable undertakings, Christian missionaries, scientists, explores
-If any powers took further lands of coasts of Africa should notify signatories of the Act to enable claims of theft own

90%

% of Africa in European hands 1900
-Berlin Conference successful for Europeans: powers able to expand their empires without conflict
-unsuccessful for indigenous population: no representative, no coherent for religious, ethnic, or linguistic considerations, no attempt to ensure wellbeing or end slavery

AJP Taylor

British historian who said Berlin Conference provided a 'safe arena' for prestige and power

1865

GB capital in Latin America over £80m and accounted for 10% of GB's imports and exports (informal empire)

Charles Morrison

GB finance who acquired Mercantile Bank of the River Plate in Argentina 1881 and invested directly into country's utilities

1861

sometimes informal empire required threats of force - GB pressure on Mexico to keep open access and uphold free trade treaties

1857

Royal Navy ensured compliance in Peru (informal empire)

1863

Royal Navy ensured compliance in Chile (informal empire)

1842 and 1858

Treaty of Nanking and Treaty of Tientsin
-GB gained trading bases at Shanghai and Hong Kong
-settled by British and governed under GB laws

1863

Robert Hart appointed as head of Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Office
-acted as a branch of China's gov to protect GB interests
-parts of China joined the informal empire
-GB gained unhindered access to Chinese markets

1879

Treaty of Gandamak secured after threat to invade Afghanistan - GB strategic territorial gains and control over foreign policy

1891

gov of Zanzibar established and Sultan's 1st minister was a GB representative - informal empire
-gained vital strategic influence through diplomatic pressure and appointment of key advisors
-activities of trader John Kirk led to GB exercising influence on Sultanate of Zanzibar, E.Africa
-Zanzibar commanded African coast of Indian Ocean

1887

first Colonial Conference discussed idea of trading preference within empire - GB turned this down as imports not always from empire and exports not always to empire, e.g £3.7m GB exports to USA
-colonies only 20% imports and 30% exports 1850-75