PSYCH 150

What is temperament?

refers to innate neurophysiologically- based characteristics of infants, including mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity, noticeable soon after birth.

How is temperament evaluated and categorized?

Temperament is evaluated through various assessments, including parent questionnaires and structured observations. It is often categorized into different types such as easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up.

How is emotion evaluated in infants?

Emotion in infants is evaluated through behavioral observations and physiological responses, often assessing facial expressions, crying, and heart rate to understand their emotional states.

What is social smiling?

involuntary smile responding to another smile, Support bonding, Initially imitation, Social cognition is built with primary caregiver

Emotional Contagion

Simpler process of perceiving and feeling another’s emotional state

Social Referencing

Reading and responding to another’s emotional state and using it to drive decision making

Empathy

The ability to perceive or picture another’s emotions

Perspective Taking

The ability to see from another’s perspective and recognize it’s different from one’s own

Differentiate between social referencing, emotional

contagion, empathy, and perspective taking

These concepts involve distinct but related processes where social referencing is the use of others' emotional cues, emotional contagion is the automatic mimicry of emotions, empathy is the cognitive ability to understand others' feelings, and perspective taking involves recognizing another's viewpoint as unique.

What is the mirror test?

Placing a mark on an infant

If they touch the mark on their own face it can be inferred they recognize the reflection as themselves

What cognitive property does the mirror test evaluate?

It evaluates self-recognition, indicating awareness of one's own identity.

How is the mirror test conducted? How does an infant pass the mirror test?

The mirror test is conducted by marking an infant's face without their awareness and then observing their reaction in front of a mirror. An infant passes the mirror test by touching or showing curiosity towards the mark on their own face, indicating self-recognition.

What are schema?

Cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information based on prior experiences.

How does assimilation apply to schema?

Assimilation involves incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

How does accomodation apply to schema?

Accommodation entails modifying schemas to fit new information.

What is the sensorimotor stage?

The first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, where infants learn about the world through their senses and actions, developing object permanence and basic motor skills.

When does the sensorimotor stage occur?

The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to approximately 2 years of age, during which infants use their senses and motor skills to explore their environment.

Synaptogenesis

is the process of forming new synapses between neurons, which is crucial for brain development and learning.

Synaptic pruning

is the process by which unused or unnecessary synapses are eliminated, allowing the brain to refine neural networks and improve efficiency.

Blooming Period

refers to the time in early brain development when there is a rapid increase in synaptogenesis, typically occurring in the first few years of life.

Authoritarian Parenting Style

is a strict parenting approach characterized by high demands, low responsiveness, and a low tolerance for mistakes, where parents enforce rules and expect obedience without much warmth or feedback. Communication is one way, and punishments are given in response to errors.

Impacts of Authoritarian Parenting Style

• Follow precise instructions more effectively

• Higher levels of aggressions

• Shyness and more difficulties with social interactions

• Difficulties in decision making

• Self-esteem lower

• Eventual potential for rebelling against authority

Authoritative Parenting Style

• Close and nurturing relationship

• Parents have clear expectations but explain reasoning

• Disciplinary actions common to support rather than to punish

• Children have input in expectations

Impacts of Authoritative Parenting Style

• Increased confidence and self regulation

• Increased responsibility

• Improved emotional well being and social relationships

• Higher self esteem

• Excel academically

Permissive Parenting Style

• Minimal expectations

• Few rules, prioritizing open communication and independence

• Infrequent discipline

Impacts of Permissive Parenting Style

• Children make decisions about their own rules

• Can lead to overproduction of unhealthy habits

• Improved self-esteem and social skills

• Increased impulsivity and difficulties with self regulation

Neglectful Parenting Style

• High degree of freedom for children

• No emotional attachment and disengagement

• No strict disciplinary style and limited communication with children

• Few expectations provided

Impact of Neglectful Parenting Style

• Increased resilience and self sufficiency

• Difficulties with emotional regulation

• Exhibit less effective coping strategies

• Face academic challenges and difficulties in social relationships

Issues with creating “universal” parenting rules

• Parenting styles vary based on individual family dynamics and cultural contexts.
• Rigid universal rules may ignore unique child needs and circumstances.

How do Higher Order Contexts impact parenting?

Higher order contexts, such as socioeconomic status, education, and cultural influences, shape parenting practices by affecting the resources available and the expectations placed on parents, resulting in varied parenting styles and outcomes for children.

Intergenerational Trauma impact on parenting style

Intergenerational trauma refers to the transmission of the effects of trauma experienced by one generation to subsequent generations, affecting parenting styles by influencing emotional responses, attachment, and resilience. This can lead to patterns of dysfunction or maladaptive behaviors in parenting.

Environmental impact on parenting style

Environmental factors, including living conditions, community resources, and social support, significantly influence parenting styles by shaping parental stress levels and available strategies for child-rearing.

Food deserts impact on parenting

Food deserts refer to areas with limited access to affordable and nutritious food, impacting parenting styles by affecting dietary choices and health-related practices. This can lead to stress and challenges in providing balanced nutrition for children, influencing their overall well-being.

Redlining impact on parenting

Redlining is a discriminatory practice that restricts access to housing and resources based on race or socioeconomic status, impacting parenting by limiting opportunities for safe living environments, quality education, and social services, thereby affecting parental stress and child development.

What is the marshmallow study?

The marshmallow study is a series of experiments conducted in the 1970s that tested children's ability to delay gratification. In the study, children were offered a choice between one marshmallow immediately or two marshmallows if they could wait for a short period, demonstrating the importance of self-control and its implications for future success.

What cognitive property did the marshmallow study investigate?

The marshmallow study investigated self-control, which is the ability to delay gratification and resist immediate temptations for greater rewards in the future.

What were the findings of the Marshmallow Study?

The findings indicated that children who were able to delay gratification tended to have better life outcomes, including higher academic performance, better emotional coping skills, and greater success in various areas later in life.

Impact of self-regulation on social relationships

Self-regulation, as shown in studies including the marshmallow study, plays a crucial role in social relationships by enabling individuals to manage their emotions, conflicts, and behaviors, leading to healthier interactions and sustained connections.

Cognitive skills acquired at preoperational stage

include symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and the ability to understand objects as representations of reality. This stage is characterized by a child's developing ability to think about things symbolically and engage in imaginative play.

Challenges at preoperational stage

include difficulty understanding others' perspectives, limited logic in problem-solving, and challenges in conservation tasks.

Egocentrism

is the inability to see situations from perspectives other than one's own, which is prevalent in young children's thinking during the preoperational stage.

Animism

the belief that inanimate objects have feelings, thoughts, or intentions, commonly observed in children during the preoperational stage.

Critiques of Piaget

argue that his theories underestimate children's cognitive abilities and overlook the influence of social and cultural factors in development.

Social Cultural Theory

is a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the role of social interaction and culture in shaping cognitive development, as proposed by Vygotsky.

Why are social relationships important to learning?

Social relationships are important to learning because they provide support, motivation, and opportunities for collaboration, enabling individuals to share knowledge and experiences that enhance cognitive development.

Zone of proximal development

is the difference between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable other, highlighting the importance of social interaction in learning.

Scaffolding

is a teaching strategy that involves providing support and guidance to students as they learn new concepts, gradually removing assistance as they become more proficient.

Theory of Mind

refers to the ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and intentions that are different from one's own, which is essential for effective social interaction and learning.

When does theory of mind develop in children?

Theory of mind typically develops in children around ages 3 to 5, as they begin to recognize that others have different perspectives and thoughts.

False belief task

is a psychological test used to assess a child's understanding of theory of mind by determining whether they can comprehend that others may hold beliefs that are incorrect or different from their own.

What cognitive properties did the false belief task investigate?

It investigates a child's ability to understand that others can have false beliefs, demonstrating their perspective-taking skills in social situations.

What were the findings of the false belief test?

Children often pass the false belief test by age 4 or 5, showing they can recognize that others may have beliefs that differ from reality.

What were the methods for the false belief test?

The methods typically involve scenarios where a character places an object in one location and then leaves the scene, allowing the object to be moved without the character's knowledge, testing the child's predictions about the character's beliefs.

Why is the false belief task important for social development?

The false belief task is crucial for social development as it helps in understanding how children learn to predict and interpret others' behavior, fostering empathy and effective communication.

Concrete Operational Stage - What cognitive skills are acquired at this age?

Children at this stage develop skills such as logical thinking, the ability to perform operations on concrete objects, and an understanding of the concept of conservation, allowing them to grasp physical properties of objects.

Seriation

is the ability to arrange objects in a sequence based on a specific criterion, such as size or color. This skill helps children understand order and relationships between different items.

Concrete Operational Stage - challenges

Children may struggle with abstract thinking and understanding hypothetical situations, as their cognitive abilities are primarily tied to concrete examples.

Concrete Operational Stage - challenges - abstract thought

is limited, making it difficult for children to think logically about things that are not present or immediately observable.

Critiques of Piaget

suggest that his theories may underestimate children's cognitive abilities and overemphasize stages. Critics argue that development is more continuous and influenced by social and cultural factors.

Some children develop the cognitive abilities of this stage earlier than others. These developments can be based on life experiences. Underestimates cognitive abilities in this stage.

TLDR Preoperational Stage

• Developments

• Theory of Mind

• Symbolic Thought

• Intuitive Thought

• Object Permanence

• Challenges

• Egocentrism

• Animism

• Centration

• Variations in Perspective Taking

• Critiques

• Cultural differences not accounted for

• Social factors not accounted for

• Differences in timelines

Information processing perspective

A cognitive approach that compares human thinking to computer processing, emphasizing how information is received, stored, and retrieved. It focuses on mental processes like attention, memory, and problem-solving, rather than developmental stages.

metacognition

The awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, involving skills like self-regulation, planning, and evaluating one's performance.

Metamemory

children are aware of what they remember or don’t remember

How does play relate to cognitive developments at the concrete operational stage?

Play enhances cognitive skills such as reasoning, problem-solving, and understanding of others' perspectives during the concrete operational stage. It allows children to practice and refine their logical thinking and adapt to new information.

What is Kholberg’s moral dilemma?

Kohlberg’s moral dilemma refers to a series of hypothetical moral scenarios designed by Lawrence Kohlberg to assess an individual's level of moral reasoning and ethical decision-making based on their responses.

Preconventional morality

is the first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development, where moral reasoning is based on personal consequences and rewards rather than societal rules or norms.

conventional morality

the stage where individuals make moral decisions based on social norms and approval from others, often adhering to rules and laws.

post conventional morality

is the third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development, where individuals base their moral reasoning on abstract principles and the greater good, transcending societal norms.

cognitive empathy

the ability to understand another person's perspective or feelings intellectually, without necessarily sharing their emotional experience.

affective empathy

the ability to share and respond to another person's emotions, feeling compassion or emotional connection.

empathetic concern

a feeling of concern for another's emotional state, often leading to a desire to help or provide support.

benefits of empathy

• Prosocial benefits

• Cooperation enhanced

• Social relationships enhanced

• Reduction of aggressive behaviors

• Potentially due to ability to classify behaviors of

another individual in a larger variety of contexts

• Some studies find no correlation to violence

costs of empathy

• Empathic distress

• Some correlations to excessive guilt and internalizing

emotions has been found in individuals with high degrees of

empathy

• Empathy may be divided into multiple parts (empathic

concern, empathic distress, affective sharing, cognitive

empathy) and that emotional regulation may relate to

time spent on emotional distress

Formal Operational Stage

the fourth stage in Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically. This stage typically begins around age 12 and continues into adulthood.

Operational Stage cognitive skills

refer to the advanced thinking abilities developed during the Formal Operational Stage, which include abstract reasoning, logical reasoning, and systematic problem-solving.

 Systematic logic

 Reasoning

 Moral Reasoning

 Scientific Thought

 Propositional Thought

Formal Operational Stage challenges

refers to the difficulties individuals may face while engaging in abstract and logical thinking during the Formal Operational Stage, including problems with hypothetical reasoning and the application of logic to new situations.

Information Processing Perspectives on Development - Formal Operational Stage

focus on how cognitive processes change and improve during the Formal Operational Stage, emphasizing attention, memory, and problem-solving strategies.

Formal Operational Stage - preoperational development

refers to the cognitive stage that precedes formal operational thinking, characterized by symbolic play and egocentrism, where children begin to develop memory and imagination but struggle with logical operations.

Why do adolescents take more risks?

During adolescence, individuals often engage in riskier behaviors due to heightened emotional responses, peer influences, and ongoing brain development, particularly in areas related to decision-making and self-regulation.

Multiple intelligence theory

proposes that individuals possess different types of intelligences, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, and spatial, among others, which influence their learning and problem-solving abilities.

Bias in intelligence Tests

refers to the systematic favoring of certain groups over others in assessments, often influenced by cultural, socioeconomic, or linguistic factors, leading to skewed results and interpretations.

learned helplessness

is a psychological condition in which individuals feel unable to control or change their situation, often resulting from repeated failures and a belief that their actions do not affect outcomes.

learning goals orientation

refers to an individual's focus on mastering new skills and knowledge, typically emphasizing personal growth and understanding, rather than solely aiming for performance outcomes or recognition.

Performance Goals Orientation

is a type of achievement motivation where individuals strive to demonstrate their competence relative to others, often focusing on external validation and outcomes rather than personal growth.

self esteem

refers to an individual's overall sense of personal value or self-worth, encompassing beliefs and emotions about oneself.

self concept

refers to an individual's perception of themselves, including their beliefs, attributes, and self-identity, which affects their behavior and motivation in various contexts.

identity

is the understanding and perception of oneself, including the aspects that define an individual such as beliefs, values, and personality traits.

How Self Esteem, Self Concept, and Identity relate to each other

Self-esteem, self-concept, and identity are interconnected components of an individual's psychological framework. Self-esteem influences how one values oneself, self-concept shapes one's understanding and perception of oneself, and identity reflects the broader understanding of who one is, shaped by experiences and beliefs.