Anatomy and Physiology 270: Lecture 1 - 4

Def of anatomy and how to study

def: study of structure
how: anatomical terminology, observation, manipulation, palpation, auscultation

What is homeostasis?

Maintaining a stable internal environment despite continuous changes in environment

What are the component of a control mechanism and what do they do?

receptor: monitors environment
control center: receives input and determine response
effector: responds to output of control center

Difference between positive and negative feedback

positive feedback amplifies change while negative feedback reduces change

Describe the standard anatomical body position

body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from body

Name the four main anatomical directions and what they mean

superior: towards the head
inferior: away from the head
anterior: towards the front of the body
posterior: towards the back of the body

What are the other seven anatomical directions?

medial, lateral, intermediate, proximal, distal, superficial, deep

Name the three common body planes and their position

sagittal: right to left
frontal: front to back
transverse: horizontal

Types of energy flow in a chemical reaction

exergonic: release
endergonic: absorbs

Things that increase chem reaction rates

increased temp, concentration of reactant, smaller particle size, catalysts

What are redox reactions?

Oxidation-reduction reactions. Electrons are transferred from one molecule to another

Difference between organic and inorganic compounds

Organic compounds contain carbon and inorganic compounds do not.

Examples of organic and inorganic compounds

organic: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids
inorganic: water, salt, acids and bases

List all of the properties of water.

high heat capacity and vaporization, reactivity, cushioning, polar solvent properties

Why is salt and electrolytes important

Because maintain homeostasis

Difference between acid and base

an acid is when the number of hydronium ions in a solution is greater than the number of hydroxide ions and release H+. Base is when the solution contains more hydroxide ions than hydronium ions and accepts H+.

How does acids/bases affect homeostasis

Increase/decrease pH interferes with cell functions

What is a buffer?

a substance that minimizes changes in pH

What are the two major carbohydrates and their functions

Sugar and starches. Source for cellular fuel and structural molecules

List the three classes of carbohydrates and important sugars in their classes

monosaccharides (one sugar): pentose, hexose
disaccaride (two sugar): sucrose, maltose, lactose; can't pass through membrane
polysaccarides: starch, glycogen; not very soluble

What is the most important thing about lipids?

They are insoluble in water

What are the four main types of lipids?

triglycerides/neutral fats, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids

What are the main functions of triglycerides?

energy storage, insulation, protection

Why are phospholipids important?

they make up the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane

What is the most important steroid and why

cholesterol: cell membrane, vitamin D synthesis, steroid hormone, bile salt

What is the most important eicosanoid and why

Prostaglandin: blood clotting, control blood pressure, inflammation, labor contraction

What are the six functions of proteins?

structural, enzymes, transport, movement, communication, defense,

What is the difference between fibrous and globular proteins?

Fibrous: structural
Globular: functional

Examples of fibrous and globular proteins

Fibrous: keratin, elastin, collagen
Globular: antibodies, hormones, enzymes

What is protein denaturation?

the unfolding and disorganization of a proteins structure that is caused by decreased pH or increased temperature. Can be reversed if normal conditions restored; not if extreme

What are enzymes?

biological catalysts that speed up reactions that act on specific substrates

What is ATP?

Energy from glucose that directly powers chemical reactions in cells

How do multicellular organisms grow?

By producing more cells via cell division; does not increase cell size

What is the difference between intracellular and extracellular?

Intracellular is fluid that is contained within a cell/plasma membrane. Extracellular are all other fluids in the body

What are the four main parts of the cell theory?

1) Cells are the structural and functional unit of life
2) organismal function depends on individual and collective cell functions
3) form follows function; cells specialized with specific function
4) continuity of life has cellular basis

What are the three main parts of the cell?

plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus

What is the mitochondria?

power house of the cell and produces and supplies the cell with energy. number and size vary depending on function of cell

What are the four main structures of the mitochondria?

Outer mitochondrial membrane, inner mitochondrial membrane, matrix, cristae

What is the plasma membrane primarily made of and what does it separate?

Made of a lipid bilayer and proteins. Separates the intracellular fluid (ICF) from extracellular fluid (ECF)

What are the three main lipids in a membrane and by how many percentage?

75% phospholipids
5% glycolipids
20% cholesterol

What is the main function of the glycoproteins?

Allow cell to communicate with the environment

What is the difference between glycoproteins integral and peripheral protein?

Integrals extends through both sides while peripheral attach to only the surface

What are the six functions of membrane proteins?

1. Transport
2. Receptors for signal transduction
3. Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
4. Enzymatic activity
5. Intercellular joining
6. Cell-cell recognition

What is glycocalyx and its function?

Sugar covering on the cell's surface that is used for cell to cell recognition

What the three ways cells are bonded, how do they work, and give one example

Tight junction: adjacent integral proteins fused; ex-bladder
Desmosomes: plagues weld cells together; ex-skin
Gap junction: transmembrane proteins form pores (connexons); ex-cardiac muscle

What are the two processes substances can cross a membranes?

Passive and active process

What is the difference between passive and active transport?

Passive doesn't require ATP while active does

What are the two types of passive transportation processes?

Diffusion and filtration

What are the four types of diffusion?

Simple diffusion, Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion, Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion, Osmosis

What are the two types of active processes?

Active and vesicular transport

Why does active transport require ATP?

Solutes too large for channels, not lipid soluble, not able to move down concentration gradient

What are the two types of active transport and how do they work?

primary active transport: require energy directly from ATP hydrolysis
secondary active transport: requires energy indirectly from ionic gradients

What is the function of the sodium-potassium pumps?

Maintaining resting potential

What is vesicular transport?

Transport of large particles, macromolecules, and fluids across plasma membranes via vesicles

Sodium-potassium pumps are responsible for maintaining high intercellular ________ and high extracellular _______

Potassium and sodium

What is the four function of vesicular transportation?

exocytosis, endocytosis, transcytosis, vesicular trafficking

What is exocytosis and its function?

Transport material out of cell. Function: hormone secretion, neurotransmitter release, mucus secretion, ejection of waste

What are the three main endocytosis processes and their function?

Phagocytosis: pseudopod engulf solids and bring them into cell's interior
Pinocytosis: plasma membrane infolds and brings extracellular fluids inside cell
Receptor-mediated endocytosis: substances bind to receptor proteins and allow cell to gather concentrated supply quickly

What is transcytosis?

moving substances into, across, and then out of a cell

What is resting membrane potential?

Difference in electrical charge across the membrane at rest. Cells become polarized

What are the roles of plasma membrane receptors?

contact signaling for recognition of cells and chemical signaling that alters cell protein activity

Why do cells differentiate?

To become specialized in structure and function

What are the three types of muscle cells?

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

What is special about skeletal and cardiac muscles?

They have striation

What structure is only found in cardiac muscles?

Intercalated disc

What are the three main parts of a neuron?

cell body, dendrites, axon

What are tissues?

Groups of cells that are similar in structure and function

What are the types of primary tissues and their function?

Connective: support
Muscle: produces movement
Nerve: controls
Epithelial: covers

What are the four main classes of connective tissue?

connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood

What are the five functions of connective tissue?

binding and support, protection, insulation, transportation, storing reserve fuel

What are the three characteristics of connective tissue?

variations in blood supply, extracellular matrix, originated from mesenchyme embryonic tissue

What are the three structural element of connective tissue?

ground substance, cells, fibers

What are the three types of connective fibers?

collagen, elastic, reticular

What is the difference between blast and cyte cells?

Blast are immature forms while cyte are the mature form

What four types of cells are in the connective tissue?

fat, white blood, mast, and macrophages cells

What are the two subclasses of connective tissue proper

loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue

What are the types of loose connective tissues?

areolar, adipose, reticular

What is the function of the areolar tissue?

wraps and cushions organs

What is the function of the adipose tissue?

provides reserve food fuel; insulates against heat loss; supports and protects organs

What is the function of the reticular tissue?

provides supporting framework

What are the types of dense connective tissue?

dense regular, dense irregular, elastic

What is the function of dense regular tissue?

attaches muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches bones to bones; withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction

What is the function of dense irregular tissue?

able to withstand tension exerted in many directions; provides structural strength

What is the function of the elastic tissue?

allows tissue to recoil after stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration

What are the three types of cartilage tissue?

hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

What is the function of hyaline cartilage?

supports and reinforces; serves as resilient cushion; resists compressive stress

What is the function of elastic cartilage?

maintains the shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility

What is the function of fibrocartilage?

tensile strength allows it to absorb compressive shock

What is one important things to remember about cartilage?

They are avascular, meaning they receive nutrient from membrane surrounding it

What is another name for bone tissue?

osseous tissue

What are the functions of osseous tissue?

support and protect, provide lever for muscles, store calcium and other minerals, site for hematopoiesis (blood cell formation)

What is the function of blood cells?

transport respiratory gases, nutrient, wastes, and other substances

T/F: Are muscle cells highly vascularized?

True

What is the function of muscle tissue?

produce movement

What are the three types of muscle tissues?

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

What is the function of skeletal muscle?

voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression; voluntary control

What is the function of cardiac muscle?

as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control

What is the function of smooth muscles?

propels substances or objects along internal passageways; involuntary control

What is the function of neurons?

transmit electric signals from sensory receptors and to effectors

What is the function of epithelial tissue?

protection, absorption, filtration, secretion, excretion, sensory reception