MI Review

Gram (+) bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan wall and a cell membrane. Gram (-) bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan wall, a cell membrane, and are covered with lipopolysaccharides and proteins.

What is the difference between gram (+) bacteria and gram (-) bacteria?

BLAST compares the DNA sequences input into it to its large database

What does a BLAST analysis do?

ELISA- Enzyme-linked-immunosorbant-assay

What does the ELISA test do and what does it stand for?

What is an antigen?

An antigen is really a type of protein found on the outside of every living cell (and virus!). Antigens are surface markers that cells use to identify each other. It's how your body knows that your body cells are truly yours, and they are how your body identifies cells and viruses that aren't yours.

What is an antibody?

The job of antibodies is to attach to foreign antigens. By attaching, those foreign antigens are neutralized. That attachment also signals other types of leukocytes (T lymphocytes) to come in and destroy whatever the antibody is attached to. So, antibodies attach to antigens. That is the principle behind an ELISA.

What are the symptoms of meningitis?

Fever; stiff neck; severe headache; vomiting or nausea with headache; confusion or difficulty concentrating; sensitivity to light; seizures; fatigue/difficulty waking up; loss of appetite; skin rashes (in some cases)

What are β-Lactam Antibiotics and what is an example?

Irreversibly inhibit enzymes involved in the final steps of cell wall synthesis. The enzymes inhibited by these drugs mediate the formation of the peptide bridges between adjacent strands of peptidoglycan. These drugs vary in their spectrum of activity; some are more active against Gram positive bacteria; whereas, others are more active against Gram negative bacteria; example, Penicillin

What are tetracyclines and what is an example?

Reversibly bind to the 30S ribosomal subunit, blocking the attachment of tRNA to the ribosome and preventing the continuation of protein synthesis. They are effective against certain Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria; example, Doxycycline

What are sulfonamides and what is an example?

Inhibit the growth of many Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. They are structurally similar to paraminobenzoic acid (PABA), a substrate in the pathway for folic acid biosynthesis. Because of this similarity, the enzyme that normally binds with PABA preferentially binds with the sulfonamide drugs, resulting in its competitive inhibition. Human cells are not affected by these drugs because they lack this enzyme; example, Sulfadiazine

What are fluoroquinolones and what is an example?

Inhibit one or more of a group of enzymes called topoisomerases, which maintain the supercoiling of the chromosomal DNA within the bacterial cells. The inhibition of these enzymes prevents essential cell processes. The fluoroquinolones are active against a wide variety of bacteria, including both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria; example, Ciprofloxacin

1) Pinna (outer ear), 2) external auditory meatus, 3) tempanic membrane (eardrum), 4) ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes), 4) tympanic cavity, 5) eustachian tube, 5) semicircular canals, 6) cochlea, 7) vestibular nerve, 8) facial nerve, 9) cochlear nerve, 10) Internal auditory meatus

Starting from the outer ear, trace the pathway of structures to the inner ear.

Higher pitch

Does a higher frequency show a higher or lower pitch?

Conductive vs. sensorineural hearing loss?

Conductive hearing loss - hearing loss of the outer ear; sensorineural hearing loss - hearing loss of the inner ear

What are the three steps of PCR?

1. Denaturation
2. Annealing
3. Exension

What is the difference between amniocentesis and chorionic villi sampling?

Amniocentesis involves inserting a large needle through the abdomen and into the uterus, where amniotic fluid (the fluid surrounding and protecting the baby) is removed. This fluid contains cells shed from the baby: skin cells, cells from the lining of the small intestine, or cells from the bladder. The cells in this fluid provide the DNA needed to perform genetic testing. Chorionic villus sampling, on the other hand, can be done earlier. Here, chorionic villus cells are removed from the placenta. This is done by inserting a needle vaginally and directing that needle to the placenta. A small sample of those cells - which are identical to the cells inside the baby - are removed and used for testing.

MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging

MRI

CT

Biopsy

Best method to diagnose cancer

Green - genes are being expressed in normal cells but not in cancer cells

In a microarray, what does the green color stand for? The yellow? The red?

What does yellow mean in a mircroarray?

What does red mean in a microarray?

Gene was strongly expressed in cancer cells

DNA microarrays measure these differences by measuring the amount of \_____ for genes that is present in a cell sample

mRNA (messenger Ribonucleic acid)

Tumor suppressors, such as the p53 gene, are used to control cells. When a cell does not function properly, or is in the wrong stage of the cell cycle, the gene will signal those cells to undergo apoptosis to keep them from spreading their non-functioning genes. If a tumor suppressor gene is turned off, then those non-functioning cells will continue to spread, which leads to a tumor formation which can be malignant.

The purpose of tumor suppressor genes

Proto-oncogenes are a group of genes that cause normal cells to become cancerous when they are mutated.

What are proto-oncogenes?

Oncogenes

Mutated versions of proto-oncegenes

Single nucleotide polymorphism

What does an SNP stand for?

a procedure used in fetal diagnosis in which fetal cells are removed from the amniotic fluid

Amniocentesis

The pairing of strands of DNA through hydrogen bonding.

anneal

Testing a person for a specific gene

Carrier Screening

a test used to find genetic defects that involves taking samples of hairlike material that surrounds the enbryo

Chorionic villus Sampling (CVS)

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait

gene

the use of tests to diagnose or predict the presence of or susceptibility to genetic conditions in individuals considered to be at high risk for a particular disorder, based on clinical symptoms, family history, or a positive genetic screen

genetic testing

genetic makeup of an organism

genotype

A picture of all the chromosomes in a cell arranged in pairs

karyotype

tests performed to help early detection of disease, especially genetic disorders, at birth

newborn screening

physical characteristics of an organism

phenotype

technique that makes many copies of a certain segment of DNA without using living cells

PCR

is a technique used to identify genetic defects in embryos created through in vitro fertilization (IVF) before transferring them into the uterus

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis

a short segment of DNA that serves as the starting point for DNA synthesis

primer

enzyme that cuts dna at a specific sequence of nucleotides.

restriction enzyme

the differences in homologous DNA sequences that are reflected in different lengths of restriction fragments produced when the DNA is cut up by a restriction enzyme

single nucleotide polymorphism

the liquid material left above the pellet after centrifugation

supernatant

heat resistant enzyme that extends primers from 5' to 3' ends in PCR

TAQ polymerase

an instrument used to complete PCR reactions; automatically cycles through different temperatures

Thermal cycler

using the reflections of high-frequency sound waves to construct an image of a body organ (a sonogram)

ultrasonography

Using a somatic cell from a multicellular organism to make one or more genetically identical individuals.

cloning

a technique that places a gene into a cell to correct a hereditary disease or to improve the genome

gene therapy

The most common assisted reproduction procedure, in which a woman's eggs are mixed with sperm in culture dishes (in vitro) and then carefully inserted into a woman's uterus.

in vitro fertilization

in biology, any agent, such as a plasmid or a virus, that can incorporate foreign DNA and transfer that DNA from one organism to another; an intermediate host that transfers a pathogen or a parasite to another organism

vector

programmed cell death; cell suicide; termination due to mutation

apoptosis

examination of tissues or liquids from the living body to determine the existence or cause of a disease

biopsy

a nuclear scan of bone tissue to detect a tumor, malignancy, etc.

bone scan

any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division

cancer

the regular sequence of growth and division that cells undergo.

cell cycle

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body.

CT scan

Diagnostic imaging A noninvasive procedure using instrumentation that seeks to establish a diagnosis by observing body structure and/or function

diagnostic imaging

Allows for simultaneous detection of many genes expressed; high throughput. Using genome database of a particular species genes are selected, sequence placed on a glass slide. Sample collected, DNA isolated and taged with a fluorescent dye. Exposed to glass slide. Fluorescence is detected and measured by lasers.

DNA microarray

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

MRI

a gene that causes normal cells to change into cancerous tumor cells

Oncogene

bone cancer (femur, humerus)

Osterosarcoma

a normal gene that has the potential to transform itself into an oncogene

Proto-oncogene

(radiology) examination of the inner structure of opaque objects using X rays or other penetrating radiation

Radiology

anything that increases the chance of disease or injury

Risk Factor

gene that codes for a protein that stops cell division in particular situations

Tumor Suppressor Gene

a type of electromagnetic radiation

X-Ray

the different forms of a gene

Allele

breast cancer (gene)

BRCA

BRCA1 and BRCA2 are good examples of what type of cancer heredity

Familial Cancer

a specific gene that produces a recognizable trait and can be used in family or population studies

Genetic Marker

Cancer that is passed on by relatives.

Hereditary Cancer

is a genetic technique whereby the sequence of the gene is not directly analyzed, but the mutant copy (allele) of the gene is inferred through analysis of a genetic marker

Marker Analysis

Polymorphic loci present in nuclear and organellar DNA that consist of repeating units of 1-6 base pairs in length.

Microsatellite

an especially dangerous cancer of the pigmented cells of the skin, related to sun exposure in people with light-colored skin

Melanoma

testing objects or persons in order to identify those with particular characteristics

Screening

occurs when a dominant mutation or 2 recessive mutations happen in somatic cells

Sporadic Cancer

a training program in which a person is given information about physiological processes (heart rate or blood pressure) that is not normally available with the goal of gaining conscious control of them

Biofeedback

the use of chemical agents to treat or control disease (or mental illness)

Chemotherapy

spread of cancer cells beyond their original site in the body

Metastasis

the application of cell-destroying radiation to kill cancerous tissues

Radiation Therapy

..., basic building blocks of protein molecules

Amino Acid

the technology of preparing recombinant DNA in vitro by cutting up DNA molecules and splicing together fragments from more than one organism

Genetic Engineering

circular DNA molecule found in bacteria

Plasmid

genetically engineered DNA made by recombining fragments of DNA from different organisms

Recombinant DNA

a procedure to remove waste products from the blood of patients whose kidneys no longer function

Dialysis

a severe stage of chronic renal failure that requires life-sustaining treatment with either dialysis or a kidney transplant. BUN may be as high as 150 to 250 mg/dL.

End Stage Renal Disease

the process of removing waste products from the blood due to kidney failure

Hemodialysis

a kidney is taken from a living donor or a recently deceased donor

Kidney Transplant

method of removing impurities using the peritoneum as the filter; a catheter inserted in the peritoneal cavity delivers cleansing fluid (dialysate) that is washed in and out in cycles

Peritoneal Dialysis

loss of feeling or sensation resulting from ether, chloroform, novocaine, etc.

Anesthesia

any of a large variety of proteins normally present in the body or produced in response to an antigen which it neutralizes, thus producing an immune response

Antibody

any substance (as a toxin or enzyme) that stimulates the production of antibodies

Antigen

blood bank test for the transfusion of blood products

Crossmatch

a combination of genes or DNA sequences that are inherited as a single unit

Haplotype

condition in which the cells of one tissue can survive in the presence of cells of another tissue

Histocompatibility

the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in humans, is controlled by genes located on chromosome 6. It encodes cell surface molecules specialized to present antigenic peptides to the T-cell receptor (TCR) on T cells.

Human Leukocyte Antigen

instrument used for visual examination of the abdominal cavity

Laparoscope

visual examination of the abdominal cavity using an endoscope

Laparoscopy

is a set of molecules displayed on cell surfaces that are responsible for lymphocyte recognition and "antigen presentation

Major Histocompatibility

Passed in 1984, a statute that provides grants to qualified organ procurement organizations an established an Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network

National Organ Transplant Act

Surgical removal of a kidney

Nephrectomy