Unit 5

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning

storage

the process of retaining encoded information out of memory storage

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many function. Contracting with the step by step processing most computers and of conscious problem solving

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recoding of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, such as knowledge, skills and experiences

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare (declarative memory)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, ,such as space, tie and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (nondeclarative memory)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recall within 3 or 4 seconds

chunking effect

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice (don't cram)

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level base on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

long-term potentiation

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

priming

the activation, often unconsciously; of particular associations in memory

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories (cANT form new)

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past (retro\=old)

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia / source misattribution

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Sources amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

deja vu

the eerie sense that i have experienced this before. cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method of sorting items into categories

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable thoughts

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problems solutions

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier-but also more errorprone-use of heuristics

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgement and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but more error-prone than algorithms

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way; often a way that has been successful in the past

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to present, or match, particular prototypes, may lead s to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

overconfidence bias

the tendency to be more confident than correct- to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with an understand others. in a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentence

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-go car-using mostly nouns and verbs

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or to Wernicke's area

Broca's area

controls language expression- an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke's area

controls language reception- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

linguistic relativity (linguistic determinism)

Whorf's hypothesis that language influences that way we think

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set

hierarchies

processing info in these composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

cerebellum

key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning

basal ganglia

facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills; receive input from the cortex

amygdala

two limbic system, emotion-processing clusters

context dependent memory

memories affected by cues we have associated with that context (encoding; specificity principle)

state dependent memory

what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state

mood congruent

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

encoding failure

brain areas that jump into action are less responsive in older adults (lost in working/short-term memory)

storage decay

gradual fading of the physical memory trace (lost in long-term storage)

retrieval failure

tip-of-the-tongue forgetting; retrieval cues might bring it back

motivated forgetting

theory in which people forget unwanted memories, either consciously or uncosciously

memory construction

replaying a memory is often replacing the original with a slightly modified version (memory reconsolidation)

functional fixedness

cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used

semantics

deriving meaning from sounds

syntax

ordering words into sentences

Noam Chomsky

theorized that humans are born with a built-in predisposition to learn grammar rules (universal grammar)

Benjamin Whorf

Linguist; his theory of linguistic determinism/relativity posits that language determines the way we think.

elaborative rehearsal

Involves deep sematic processing of a to-be-remembered item resulting in the production of durable memories.

Maintenance rehearsal

Simply repeating the stimulus again and again in order to remember it. This is good for rote memorization, but is processing in a shallow way.

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

critical period for language

the time during which language develops readily and after which (sometime between age 5 and puberty; estimates are around age 7) language acquisition is much more difficult and ultimately less successful

language acquisition

the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native languagek

language acquisition device (LAD)

Chomsky's term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation.

nativist language theory

Noam Chomsky and the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Humans are biologically prepared to acquire rules of language. Innate system of universal grammar. We learn language naturally.

receptive language

ability to comprehend speech

productive language

babies' ability to produce words

memory distortion

what we remember is not an exact replica of what happened