Anatomy and Physiology

Atria

Less Muscular

Receive Blood

Ventricle

More Muscular

Send Blood

Aorta

Largest Artery in body

Highest blood pressure of any vessel

Pulmonary Circulation

Moves deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs to be oxygenated

Systemic Circulation

Moves oxygenated blood from heart throughout body

Higher resistance

Largest Vein in Human Body

Vena Cava

SA Node

Greatest Automaticity

Set rhythm for heart

AV Node

Speed up heart rate with sympathetic nervous system

Slow down with parasympathetic nervous system

Utilize vagus nerve

Intercalated Discs

Connect adjacent heart cells

Made of desmosomes and gap junctions

Arteries

Move blood away from heart

Highly elastic

Veins

Move blood toward heart

Pulmonary Arteries

Vessel most deoxygenated

Pulmonary Veins

Vessel most oxygenated

Mechanism of Blood Clotting

Collagen is exposed

When tissue is damaged, it releases signals to attract platelets and releases signals to attract more platelets.

Platelet interact with collagen and become activated to form platelet plugs.

Platelets release thromboplastin.

Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin and makes a plug

Vitamin K

Important because it helps create clotting factor

Platelets

Cell fragments that do not contain nucleus

Originate from megakaryocytes

Umbilical Vein

Carries oxygenated blood from placenta to fetus

Ductus Venosus

Connects umbilical vein to inferior vena cava

Ductus Arteriosus

Connects pulmonary artery to aorta

Allow oxygen to leave

Umbilical Artery

Carries deoxygenated blood from fetus to placenta

Erythroblastosis Fetalis

If mother is Rh negative and fetus is Rh positive, she will develop anti-Rh antibodies.

During first pregnancy is fine but if another Rh+ fetus, the antibody will attack the fetus.

Hydrostatic Pressure

Pushes fluid out of capillaries on arterial end into interstitial space.

Oncotic Pressure

Type of osmotic pressure

Brings fluid back into the capillaries at venule end.

Left Lung

Smaller Lung

Two lobes

Right Lung

Larger Lung

3 Lobes

Pleura

Double layer membrane that covers the lung

Visceral Pleura

Inside of pleura

Parietal Pleura

Outer portion of pleura

Diaphragm

Bottom of lungs

Skeletal muscle

Contracts to pull lung down

Pulmonary Surfactant

Decreases the surface tension in the lungs

Pathway of Air

Nasal Cavity to Pharynx to Larynx to Trachea to Bronchi to Bronchioles to Alveoli

Goblet Cells in Nasal Cavity

Secrete mucus to trap debris

Ciliated epithelial cells

Move debris

Larynx

Voice Box

Have cough reflex with epiglottis malfunctions

Alveoli Type 1

For Structural Support

Alveoli Type 2

Produce surfactant that reduce surface tension that prevents alveoli from collapsing

Ferrous

Fe2+ Oxygen binds to it

Ferrix

Oxygen cannot bind to Fe3+

Bilirubin

When red blood cell gets degraded, HEME makes this which become bile in liver

Myoglobin

Found in cytoplasm of muscle and cardiac cells

Single peptide with one heme cofactor

Much higher affinity for oxygen than oxyhemoglobin and is found within cardiac and skeletal muscle cells to bring oxygen in.

Right-Shifted Curve

Lowered affinity for oxygen in hemoglobin

Decreased pH High partial pressure of CO2

2,3-diphosphoglycerate

Increased Body temperature

Left-Shifted Curve

Increase affinity for oxygen in hemoglobin

Increased pH

Low partial pressure of carbon dioxide

Fetal Hemoglobin

Decreased Body temperature

Bohr Effect

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Hemoglobin has decreased oxygen affinity when CO2 is high.

CO2 converted to bicarbonate anions and protons which produce reduced hemoglobins

Haldane Effect

Hemoglobin increased CO2 affinity when oxygen is low

Carbonic Anhydrase

Catalyst of bicarbonate buffering system helps both directions

Bicarbonate Buffering System

Main extracellular buffering system in body.

Maintains blood pH of 7.4

CO2 + H2O to H2CO3 to HCO3- + H+

Phosphate Buffering System

Main intracellular buffer system in humans that regulates our body’s intracellular pH

Central Chemoreceptors

Found in the CNS and is protected by the blood-brain-barrier

Monitor Acidity

Too much CO2 cause acidity which signals medulla oblongata to increase breathing rate

Peripheral Chemoreceptors

Surround aortic arch and carotid arteries

Sense Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and proton levels

When CO2 is high and O2 is low, signal medulla oblongata to increase breathing rate

Lymphocytes

Leukocytes originate from bone marrow but end up concentrating in lymphatic organs

Inflammatory Response

Rally Signaling

Mast cell releases histamine

Histamine dilate nearby capillaries and make capillary walls more permeable so immune cells get to site of injury

Histamine

Dilate nearby capillaries and increase blood flow

Make capillary walls more permeable

Mast Cells

Type of leukocyte responsible for first part of inflammatory response known as rally signaling

Release Histamine

Diapedesis

Process which cells move from capillaries to tissues in order to fight pathogens

Five main types of leukocytes from most to least

Neutrophils Lymphocytes Macrophages/monocytes Eosinophils Basophils Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas

Lymphocytes

B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells Identify and acquire target before killing it

B and T cells

Part of adaptive immunity and must be activated.

Most common type of leukocyte in lymph

Natural Killer Cells

Part of innate immunity and attack virally-infected cells + cancerous cells

Use perforin (poke holes) and release granzymes to stimulate target cell to undergo apoptosis

Macrophages/Monocytes

Immature in blood vessels as monocytes

Goes to infected tissue as macrophages when mature

Eat pathogens nonspecifically

Serve as antigen-presenting cells to activate adaptive immunity

Eosinophils

Filled with granules which contain proteins released to kill pathogen

Effective against parasites

Basophils

Least numerous Contains: Granules Histamine Heparin

Heparin

An anticoagulant that prevents blood from clotting too quickly

Dendritic Cells

Surveillance cells in tissues that detect potential threats Performs pinocytosis

If pathogen detected, dendritic cells will phagocytose

Toll-like receptors

Macrophages and dendritic cells use this to recognize conserved parts of microbes.

Interferons

Molecule released by virus-infected cells to warn nearby non-infected cells by binding to them

Can activate dendritic cells and adaptive immune system

Epitope

Part of antigen that is recognized by immune cell like B and T cells

MHC Class 1

On all cells with nuclei

Allow recognition

Every unique individual has own unique MHC 1

MHC Class 2

Surface molecule present on antigen-presenting cells and is used to present foreign antigens to activate immune cells

B Cells

Stay and Mature in Bone Marrow Conduct antibody-mediated immunity

Control production and release of antibodies

IgM

Largest antibody

First to be produced in response to an antigen

Largest Antibody

IgA

Most abundant antibody in body secretions

In breastmilk to give newborns immunity

Binds and stops pathogens externally before they enter circulation

IgE

Antigen receptors found on basophils and mast cells Trigger release of histamine when allergen present

IgD

Unknown function Small amount

IgG

Most abundant antibody in blood

Only antibody that cross placenta to give fetus immunity

T Cells

Responsible for cell-mediated immunity

Has unique, uniform T cell receptor that binds to 1 kind of antigen

CD8 or CD8+

Activated by MHC 1

Will recognize every cell and release perforin and granzymes

CD4

Helper T Cells

Activated by MHC 2

Assist innate and adaptive immunity

Myelin Sheath

Fatty insulation of the axon

Formed by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells

Ion exchange occur at Nodes of Ranvier

Glial Cells

Non-neuronal cells in neurotransmitter

Nourish, support, and protect neurons

Microglial Cells

Modified macrophages that defend central nervous system

Astrocytes

Type of Macroglia

Most important and abundant.

Recycle neurotransmitter and maintain ion levels

Form blood-brain barrier

Satellite Cells

Macroglia

Same as astrocytes but help PNS neurons

Form blood-brain barrier

Schwann Cells

Form myelin sheath in peripheral nervous system

Oligodendrocytes

Form myelin sheath in central nervous system

Ependymal Cells

Macroglia

Creates cerebral spinal fluid

Glutamate

An amino acid

Most abundant

Major excitatory neuron

Gaba

Inhibitory NT of Brain

Glycine

Inhibitory NT of CNS

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

Excitatory postsynaptic

NT of sympathetic nervous system

Dopamine

Excitatory NT of brain involved in reward-motivated behavior

Serotonin

Inhibitory NT of brain involved in mood, appetite, sleep, and learning.

Increases contraction of gastrointestinal tract in response to food intake

Nitric Oxide

Causes smooth muscle relaxation.

Leads to decreased blood pressure

Acetylcholine

Excitatory NT of neuromuscular junction in vertebrates

Mid Brain in Embryo

Develops into Mesencephalon which gives rise to midbrain

Hindbrain in Embryo

Develops into Metencephalon and Myelencephalon which gives rise to pons, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata

Forebrain in Embryo

Develops into Telencephalon and Diencephalon which gives rise to cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and pineal gland

Frontal Lobe

Known for higher function processes such as decision making, problem solving, attention and concentration

Temporal Lobe

Language processing and hearing

Occipital Lobe

Known for vision

Parietal Lobe

Known for spatial perception and sensation