RSC2601 superset all chapters

Science

a process of inquiry

Inquiry

the process whereby we gain knowledge by observing how things are and using our minds to think logically about what we observed

the social world

the part of our existence dealing with how people interact with one another

we discover reality through

personal experience

personal experience is dominated by

our curiousity

dominant approaches in social sciences research

positivism interpretivism critical

science

a process of inquiry

Knowledge is

cumulative and an inherited body of information which helps us obtain further information

to think traditionally means

that we don’t have to find out how the knowledge was obtained in the first place the source of learning is not questioned

every scientific discipline can be understood as

being based upon a tradition of thought

when we accept something as being true because of the status of the person who discovered this truth, we are

relying on authority as our source of knowledge

the problem with relying on authority is that

we can overestimate the expertise of the person

religion often offer a type of knowledge base upon

the authority of sacred texts (Bible, Qur’an etc)

religion is not

a reliable guide to knowledge about the actual state of the world

for scientific progress to take place

scientists must be allowed the freedom to pursue knowledge to wherever it may lead even though doing so may overturn some cherished beliefs

common sense as ordinary reasoning relates to

what people know intuitively often originates in tradition

common sense does it

systematically consider how ideas are related to each othercollect information systematically in reaching conclusions

Errors in human inquiry

inaccurate observationovergeneralisationselective observationego involvementpremature closure of enquiry

in contrast to our ordinary inquiries, scientific observation is

a conscious activity we observe events deliberately

Overgeneralisation

we arrive at a general conclusion about a particular thing when we have only observed a few cases of that thing

using a few events to arrive at a conclusion is unwarranted because

it means we ignore the possibility that observing additional cases may disprove our earlier observations

the halo effect

when we look at one very good aspect of something then overgeneralise

scientists guard against overgeneralisation by

involving a sufficiently large sample of observationsreplicating an inquiry

overgeneralisation may lead to

selective observation

selective observation happens once

the decision is made that events are following a particular pattern and you think you know why, you will tend to pay attention mainly to future situations that correspond with that pattern you will also tend to overlook any situation that conflicts with that pattern

science guards against selective observation by

using a research design which specifies the number and kind of observations we need before we can make a conclusion

science guards against ego involvement by

testing hypotheses in a systematic mannermaking the research public in the form of a report which exposes biases or ego involvement

testing hypotheses in a systematic manner enables us to

collect information rigorously and information can be considered objectively

premature closure of inquiry

we ask questions for a short while, obtain some answers and stop our inquiry too soon

premature closure of inquiry results in

our attempts to understand something stopping before our understanding is complete the evidence for sound conclusions are inadequate

science guards against premature closure of inquiry by

a thorough review of the literature on the topic being researched

norms

rules of conduct in particular situations that are enforced by positive and negative sanctions people are rewarded if they act according to the norm and punished if they violate the norm

scientific norms

* universalism
* organised scepticism
* disinterestedness
* communalism
* honestly

universalism

irrespective of who conducts the research and regardless of where it is conducted, the research is to be judged only on the basis of scientific merit

organised scepticism

scientists should not accept new ideas or evidence in a carefree , uncritical manner.All evidence should be challenged and questionseach study is subjected to intense criticism and scrutiny

disinterestedness

scientists should be neutral, impartial, receptive and open to unexpected observations or new ideasscientists should not be rigidly wedded to particular idea or point of viewscientists should should accept evidence that runs against their positions and should honestly accept all findings based on high-quality research

communalism

scientific knowledge should be shared with other and it belongs to everyone

honesty

this is a general cultural norm but especially strong in scientific research

theory

a framework that provides an explanation of something

relativism

the philosophical position that there are no absolute truthstruth that apply to everybody, but only my and your truths, which may not be the same

professional norms

ideals of proper conduct in a particular profession

feminists have argued that science has developed in a way that

the norm of universality was systematically violated the knowledge that was developed was often coloured by the prejudices of men regarding the proper role of women and the knowledge produced was not universal but only reflected the privileged position of men in society

value free

the idea that scientific enquiry should not be influenced by the values scientists hold dear

particularism

knowledge should indeed be evaluated in terms of the identity of the speaker making the knowledge claim

particularism is contrary to

the norm of universalism

Scientists usually check on one another to see that norms are followed.

subjecting research reports to the scrutiny of other scientists by publishing them in academic books or journalsthe scientific community criticising these reports, regardless of the author’s personal statusadmitting that all knowledge is tentative, to be accepted only until disprovedcondemning dishonesty in research

to be reflexive

is to be self-aware and to reflect on ones own conduct of scientific enquiry

reflexivity means that

one must be aware of the assumptions that one may be making in one research

to help guard against the criticisms made by feminists and post-colonialists

it is necessary that scientists try to investigate their own prejudices and see if they are guilty of making unwarranted assumptions about their discipline that may flow from their position in society

the research process involves four stages

the definition of the problemobtaining the informationanalysing and interpreting the informationcommunication the results

Ethics is a broad concept which

Influence the way we think and what we do in all aspects of our research

Stage 1: defining the problem

—research design or plan —research problem —literature review —theory —assumptions —hypothesis —research questions

Stage 2: obtaining the information

samplingData collection

Stage 3: analysing and interpreting information

— describing and interpreting quantitative data — describing and interpreting qualitative data

Stage 4: communicating results

Involves writing the research report

ontology

a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of reality

ontological assumptions

these assumptions refer to what researchers think exists and is real.

Ontological questions address

the primary issues researchers have to deal with. They are important because they influence all subsequent decisions made by the researcher

epistemology

a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of knowledge

Epistemological questions deal with

how we can know and explain something in other words we have to decide what qualifies as being social scientific knowledge

epistemological questions identify

The principles or rules that determine how social phenomena can be known and what kind of explanation is seen as being satisfactory.

There are three dominant approaches in social science

PositivistInterpretiveCritical

The dominant approaches to social science is also known as

The conventional approaches to social science

correlate

an association between two or more variables, determined statistically

Variable

A property that changes empirically

Positivism

a systematic way of doing research that emphasises the importance of observable facts

Positivists believe that

Social reality can be discovered

According to positivists

the behaviour of human beings is determined by external influences that produce particular effects under certain conditions.

According to positivists, social reality reflects

Certain patterns and the behaviour of human beings is, to an extent, a product of these patterns

Positivists argue that, since social phenomena exist in their own right

social phenomena are open to outside empirical observation.

For positivists knowledge is based on

Facts

Positivists claim that it is crucial that researchers approach social reality in a

neutral, value-free , detached and systematic way.

Positivists regard knowledge to be

Cumulative

Knowledge of causal laws

Helps society to progress

Interpretivism

an approach to social science that emphasises the importance of insiders’ viewpoints to understanding social realities.

Interpretivists argue that

Social reality is inherently meaningful

Interpretivists claim that meaning is constructed through

Human being interacting with each other and playing a central role in defining a situation to make sense of it

Inter-subjective means

to be shared between subjects, and by subjects we mean conscious individuals, that is people who are aware of what happens around them and who can act with a purpose in mind.

Interpretivists argue that the purpose of research is

to make social reality intelligible and reveal its inherent meaningfulness.

Interpretivists claim that social reality is created through

The conscious actions of human beings

Interpretivists insist that

Social reality differs fundamentally from natural reality and to explain social actions we need to first understand the meaningfulness of social reality

How do Interpretivists access the meaningfulness of social reality

They argue that researchers have to be sensitive to the social context in which meaning is produced. Social reality is approached from the perspective of the human beings who actively construct (literally, to build) this reality.

Critical approach

an approach to social science that emphasises the need to uncover hidden processes and structures within society

Critical social scientists argue that

Social reality is multi-layered Social reality is a human construction with more than one possibility.

According to critical social scientists

We need to penetrate the layers of social reality and uncover the underlying relationships that determine the real characteristics of society.

According to critical social scientists, the reason why we don’t ordinarily see the real exploitive nature of society is that

We perceive it through a framework constructed for us by institutions such a s the mass media

According to critical social scientists, a false consciousness is created when

People accept the situation as being natural and therefore unconsciously reproduce the social structures that govern them

The awareness created by exposing the false consciousness enables people

to reflect on how they are both products and creators of social reality.

Critical social scientists argue that positivist social scientists’ emphasis on discovering objective facts that are observable and measurable is misguided because

social reality cannot be taken only at its face value.

Critical social scientists claim that observable surface structures

seldom coincide with reality.

According to critical social scientists, empirically observed patterns (i.e. the patterns we can see) are

the evidence that points to the underlying mechanisms.

Critical social scientists also argue that the interpretive approach perpetuates the myths of social reality by

reducing it to commonsense interpretation and understanding.

objectivity for positivists this means

impartiality

feminist research

an approach advocating gender sensitivity in research, in particular the acknowledgement of the role of women

One of the key aims of feminist researchers has been to demonstrate

just how male-oriented conventional academic research in the social sciences is.

Feminists claim that much research in the social sciences

Is done by the powerful for their own benefit

According to the feminist approach, the one-sided emphasis on rationality is associated with

Patriarchal values

By emphasising gender, feminists hope to

bring the power and subordination aspects of the relationships between women and men into play.

Research is in the feminist approach is inclusionary because

the vantage point of the powerless and their relationship to the powerful is considered.

Post-modern research

an approach to research that claims there is no such thing as absolute “truth’’ and that no particular theory or method is better than another at determining the truth