SEE quiz two

ch 4, 8,5

**Types of Interactions: Competition (organisms seek the same resource)**

intraspecific competition

takes place between members of the same species

*Interspecific competition*

takes place between members of different species.

**resource partitioning**

Over many generations, natural selection may favor this where where individuals use shared resources in different ways

Interspecific interactions:

**Predation**

process by which individuals of one species (the predators) capture, kill, and consume individuals of another (the prey)

Interspecific interactions: Arms race/coevolution

if you eat slowest critters first the fast ones are left.  What happens if they are faster than you?

Predation, arms race/coevolution

win-lose relationship

Interspecific interactions: **Parasitism**

relationship where one organism depends on the other for nourishment (usually does not result in death)

**coevolution**

**Parasites and hosts** adapt and counter-adapt to each other through a process called

*evolutionary arms race*

The duel of escalating adaptations between parasites and hosts is known as an

parasites and hosts

win- somewhat inconvenienced relationship

Interspecific interactions: **Mutualism**

relationship where two or more species benefit each other (A symbiosis) ex: pollinators, not a conscious decision - win-win relationship

**community**

an assemblage of populations of organisms living in the same area at the same time

Community ecologists

study which species coexist, how they interact, how communities change over time, and why these patterns occur

**who eats whom**

Some of the most important interactions among community members involve

What limits how many trophic levels?

Lose 90% (on average) of energy between levels \n \n Lost as heat or as physiological maintenance (“metabolism”)

**trophic levels**

Food chains consist of

**trophic levels:**

*Secondary consumers*

prey on primary consumers

**trophic levels:**

*Tertiary consumers*

prey on secondary consumers

**trophic levels:**

Detritivores

scavenge waste and dead bodies

**trophic levels:**

Decomposers

break down nonliving matter into smaller molecules

(These play an especially important role in cycling nutrients back into soil for plants to use)

Food chain is **linear**

Not realistic, food chains do not occur in isolation in nature

Food webs

interacting food chains

**keystone species**

A species that has an impact far greater than its abundance is called a

**keystone species include:**

Decomposers that recycle nutrients and replenish the soil

**keystone species include:**

“Ecosystem engineers,” such as beavers and prairie dogs, who physically alter ecosystems

**keystone species include:**

Top predators, who control populations of lower trophic level consumers, are often keystone species

A disturbance

any event that has rapid and drastic effects on the community and ecosystem

(can be small like tree falling, large like hurricane, or regularly like prairie fires)

Succession

A change in species composition over time

(Pioneer species, Climax species, But see intermediate disturbance hypothesis)

Primary succession

start with bare rock

Secondary succession

start over, soil/seeds still present

**regime shift**

the entire character of the community changes from the disturbance

(Occurs from climate change, loss of a keystone species, or introduction of an invasive species)

**novel communities**

human disturbance is causing a mixture of species that have not previously occurred on the Earth

Introduced species

Native, Non-native, Invasive

Invasive species

can cause huge food web changes

\
characteristics: No natural control (predators/diseases)

Reproduce at a young age, and a lot

Are generalists or are particularly suited to exploiting a specific, abundant resource

How to get rid of Invasives

Spray/ poison? Hunt/trap?

Cut down or remove by other mechanical means?

Manipulate environmental conditions to hinder growth (like water levels)?

Build fences?

__**Prevention is almost always cheaper than control or elimination**__

Scientists who study **restoration ecology**

devise ways to restore altered areas to their condition before industrialized civilization

Biomes

A regional complex of similar communities

**result of climate**

Biomes are classified primarily by dominant plant type and vegetation structure, which in turn is the (especially availability of water and temp)

**Climate diagrams**

also called *climatographs*, depict seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation and help to tell the story of a biome

Biomes in the ***Tropical Climate Zone***

Tropical rainforests

Tropical seasonal forests and savannas

Hot deserts

North american prairies

Short grass prairie – Great Plains

Tall grass prairie – ‘Corn Belt’

**Permafrost**

(subsurface soil that remains frozen year-round)

>impedes drainage

>causes soils to be saturated.

CHAPTER

EIGHT

**Biodiversity**

variety of life across all levels of biological organization (genes through ecosystems)

\
some groups of organisms include more species than others

**species**

set of organisms that share unique characteristics and can breed and produce fertile offspring

**Functional Diversity**

biological and chemical processes such as energy flow and matter recycling needed for the survival of species, communities, and ecosystems

**Ecological Diversity**

variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on the earth

**Species Diversity**

number and abundance of species present in different communities

*Species richness*

describes the number of species

*Evenness* or *relative abundance*

describes how much the species differ from each other in numbers of individuals

**Genetic diversity**

includes differences in DNA composition among individuals

(pop with little diversity are more likely to suffer inbreeding depression and be vulnerable to environmental change)

**Ecosystem diversity**

refers to the number and variety of ecosystems, communities, or habitats

Species richness generally **increases towards the equator**, due to

–Greater geographic area.

–More solar energy.

–Stability of tropical climates.

–Lack of disruptive glaciation events in the past.

\
(biodiversity also varies based on location)

**Structurally diverse habitats**

like forests, are generally more biodiverse

Biodiverse regions

provide many benefits, such as potential new or unused food sources, or new pharmaceuticals

***resilience***

its ability to withstand disturbance, recover from stress, or adapt to change

Biodiversity increases

If a ***keystone species*** like a top predator is lost

consequences will cascade down the entire food chain

If an ***ecosystem engineer*** is lost

the entire structure of an ecosystem can change

**ecotourism**

provides 25% of all foreign money entering the economy for Tanzania

**biophilia**

human beings share an instinctive love for nature and feel an emotional bond with other living things -Edward O. Norton

**generalists**

can adapt to the changing conditions

**specialists**

rely on mature, stable ecosystems

**Red List**

list of all species at high risk of extinction

\
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) maintains

**Habitat loss**

the greatest threat to biodiversity today

**habitat fragmentation**

Habitat loss most commonly occurs through gradual, piecemeal degradation called

\
this makes habitats smaller & prevents movement of organisms

**Pollution**

harms organisms in many ways

–Air pollution degrades forests and affects the atmosphere and climate.

–Noise and light pollution affect the behavior and habitat use of animals.

–Water pollution directly harms fish and amphibians.

–Agricultural runoff affects the food webs of aquatic ecosystems.

–Persistent pollutants like heavy metals directly poison people and wildlife.

–Plastic in the ocean can strangle, drown, or choke marine animals.

**growth in population and consumption**

leading us to remove species at faster rates than they can reproduce

**Invasive species**

non-native species introduced to new environments, can proliferate and displace native species

**Climate change**

also hurting biodiversity, with the warming temperatures causing some animals to shift their ranges to be closer to the poles or higher in altitude

**Conservation biology**

a study that seeks to understand the loss, protection, and restoration of biological diversity

***minimum viable population size***

how small a population can become and how much genetic variation it can lose before encountering **inbreeding depression**

(conservation genetics determine)

**Endangered Species Act (ESA)**

1973 offers protection to species that fall within two categories

**Endangered**

**Threatened**

**Endangered**

In danger of becoming extinct in the near future

**Threatened**

Likely to become endangered soon

**“shoot, shovel, and shut up”**

a practice of concealing the presence of endangered species on private land

1973 **Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)**

bans the international transport of the body parts of rare species

**Convention on Biological Diversity**

a treaty that provides funding and incentives for conservation in developing countries

**captive breeding**

endangered individuals such as black rhinos are bred and raised with the intention of reintroducing their progeny into the wild

protection of ***umbrella species***

helps to protect many others.

*flagship species*

to promote conservation, Environmental organizations use large charismatic vertebrates as

**Biodiversity hotspots**

regions that support a large number of species that are found nowhere else

**community-based conservation**

actively engages local people such as the Maasai

CHAPTER

FIVE

**economy**

social system that converts resources into goods and services

goods- material commodities

services- includes work done for others

**Economics**

study of how people use potentially scarce resources to provide goods and services that are in demand

*Natural resources,* or ecosystem goods

include fresh water, trees that provide timber, and the energy from the sun, wind, water, and fossil fuels

*Ecological services*

include air and water purification, soil formation, climate regulation, pollination, and waste recycling

**classical economics**

self-interested economic behavior can benefit society, as long as it is controlled

under the right conditions, the marketplace will behave as if guided by an “invisible hand” to benefit society -Adam Smith

**Neoclassical economics**

a conflict between buyers (who want a low price) and sellers (who want a high price)

\
—The compromise is the result of *supply* (the amount of product offered for sale at a given price) and *demand* (the amount of product people will buy at that price).

**cost-benefit analysis**

will compare the estimated costs of a proposed action with its benefits (assumes resources are infinite)

**External costs**

affect others besides the buyer and seller. Examples include

health impacts, depletion of resources, aesthetic damage, financial loss

**third assumption discounting**

future effects are granted less weight than ones in the present

assumption in neoclassical economics is

second assumption internal costs

those directedly borne by individuals taking part in an economic exchange

neoclassical economics only take these into account

fourth assumption economic growth

* increase in production and consumption in goods and services
* is essential in maintaining social order

**environmental economics**

goal is to attain sustainability within our economic systems

issues with the assumptions of classical economics led to this field

**Ecological economics**

takes the position that economies should attain a stability, much like natural populations do in the face of environmental limitations

**Steady-state** **economies**

would mirror ecological systems by neither growing nor shrinking but, rather, establishing a natural equilibrium

**nonmarket values**

they are not part of the price of a good or service - ecosystems services said to have

Aesthetic, option, scientific, and educational values are real even though we do not directly pay for them

**Gross Domestic Product (GDP)**

the total monetary value of goods and services produced in a year

economy of each nation has traditionally been assessed using this

**Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI)**

One alternative indicator developed by environmental economists is the

* Adds in unpaid positive contributions, such as parenting and volunteering.
* Negative impacts, such as crime and pollution, are subtracted