psych 101 exam

empiricism

the conviction that accurate knowledge of the world can be acquired by observing it

scientific method

procedure for using empirical evidence to establish facts

theories

idea about how something works/explanations of natural phenomena

hypothesis

a falsifiable prediction made by a theory

scientific method steps

1. develop theory 2) derive falsifiable hypothesis 3) test hypothesis by observation (empirical evidence)

empirical method

a set of rules and techniques for observation

what does Method often refer to in science?

tech that enhances senses (ex. telescope, microscope)

what are the means of measurement in an experiment

1. define the property 2)detect the property

How do you define a property?

generate an operational definition that has construct validity

How do you detect a property?

design an instrument that has reliability and power

operational definition

a description of a property in measurable terms

construct validity

a feature of operational definitions whose specified operation are generally considered good indicators of the specified properties

what are two key features of a good detector

power and reliability

power

a detectors ability to detect the presence of differences or changes in the magnitude of a property

reliability

detectors ability to detect the absence of differences or changes in the magnitude of a property

naturalistic observation

a technique for gathering info by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments

observer bias

the tendency for observers' expectations to influence both what they believe they observed and what they actually observed

how to avoid reactivity and observer bias?

double blind study

double blind study

a study in which neither the researcher nor the participant knows how the participants are expected to behave

reactivity

a phenomenon that occurs when individuals alter their performance or behavior due to the awareness that they are being observed

population

a complete collection of people

sample

a partial collection of people drawn form population

frequency distribution

a graphic representation showing the number of times that the the measurement of a property takes on each of its possible values

negatively skewed

lean to the right

positively skewed

lean to the left

normal distribution

a mathematically defined distribution in which the frequency of measurements is highest in the middle and decreases symmetrically in both directions

descriptive statistics

a brief statement that captures essential info

central tendency

statements about the value of the measurements that tend to lie near the center or midpoints of the frequency distribution

variablility

statements about the extent to which the measurements in a frequency differ from each other

mode

the value of the most frequently observed measurement

mean

the average value of all the measurements

median

the value that is in the middle of the graph

range

the value of the largest measurement in a frequency distributions minus the value of the smallest measurement

standard deviation

how each of the measurements in a frequency distribution differs from the mean/how far on average the various measurements are from the center of the distribution

correlation

a relationship between variables in which variations in the value of of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other

variables

properties that can have more than one value

positively correlated

more is more

negatively correlated

more is less

correlation coefficient

mathematical measure of both the direction and the strength of a correlation (r)

natural correlation

a correlation that is observed in the natural world

third variable problem

the natural correlation between two variables cannot be taken as evidence of a causal relationship between them because a third variable might be causing both

experimentation

a technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables via manipulation and random assignment

manipulation

a technique for determining the causal power of a variable by actively changing its value

condition

the different experiences of a manipulation experiment

what can help with third variable problem?

manipulation

experimentation steps

1. manipulate 2) measure 3) compare

independent variable

the variable that is manipulated

dependent variable

the variable that is measured

self selection

a problem that occurs when anything about a participant determines the value of the independent variable to which the participant is exposed

random assignment

a procedure that assigns participants to a condition by chance

internal validity

an attribute of an experiment that allows it to establish causal relationships/applying all the correct experiment techniques

External validity

an attribute of an experiment in which variables have been operationally defined in a representative way

N=?

Population

n=?

Sample

What is true about external validity

most psychology experiments are externally invalid

case method

a procedure for gathering scientific info by studying a single individual

random sampling

a technique for selecting participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample

what is true about random sampling

almost impossible to have a truly random sample

replication

an experiment that uses the same procedures as a previous experiment but with a new sample from the same population

type 1 error

when researchers conclude that there is a causal relationship between two variables when there is not

type 2 error

when researchers conclude that there is not a causal relationship between two variables when there is

what is true about human bias when thinking critically about evidence?

1. We see what we expect and want to see 2) We don't consider what we don't believe or don't see

critical thinking

doubt what you do see, consider what you don't see

informed consent

a verbal agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail

Methods of inquiry

1. observation 2) interrogation 3) correlation 4) experiment

strengths of observation and interrogation

1. easy 2) important source of valuable information

weaknesses of observation

1. limited by our sense 2) reactivity 3) truncated range 4) biased perception

weaknesses of interrogation

1. people lie 2) people don't know why they do what they do

Randomization

Procedure to assign participants to a condition, such that each participant has an equal probability of serving in each condition

placebo group

A control group of participants who believe they are receiving treatment, but are actually a third 'control' group.

neurons

cells in the nervous system that communicate with each other to perform info processing tasks

three basic parts of a neuron

1. cell body 2) dendrites 3) axons

Cell body (soma)

largest component of a neuron, coordinates the info processing and keeps cell alive

dendrites

reieve info from other neurons and relay to cell body

axon

carries info to other neurons, muscles, or glands

myelin sheath

insulating fatty layer surrounding the axon

glial cells

support cells found in the nervous system

synapse

the junction/region between axon of one neuron and the dendrites/cell body of another

what are three specialized neurons?

1. sensory 2) motor 3) inter

sensory neurons

receive info from external world and convey info to brain via spinal cord

motor neurons

carry signals from brain through spinal cord to muscles to produce movement

interneurons

connect sensory, motor, or other interneurons. they pass along info and search for info

terminal buttons

knoblike structures that branch out from an axon

neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit info across the synapse to a receiving neuron's dendrites

receptors

parts of the cell membrane that receive the neurotransmitters and either initiate or prevent new electric signal

lock and key system

only certain neurotransmitters can activate certain receptors

what are the three processes by which neurotransmitters leave the synapse

1. reuptake 2) enzyme deactivation 3) diffusion

Reuptake

Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by terminal buttons of presynaptic neuron's axon

enzyme deactivation

Neurotransmitters are destroyed by enzymes

Diffusion

Neurotransmitters drift out of synapse

Acetylcholine (ACh)

involved in a number of functions including motor control

Dopamine

regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal

Glutamate

excitatory, enhances transmission of info between neurons

GABA

inhibitory, prevents firing of neurons

What happens if you have too much glutamate or too little GABA?

seizures

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal, involved in states of vigilance

Seratonin

involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, aggressive behavior

endorphins

chemicals that act within pain pathways and emotion centers of the brain

Agonists

drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter

antagonist

drugs that diminish the function of a neurotransmitter