Chapter 8 ap psych

William James

an American philosopher who viewed consciousness as a continuous flow or "stream of consciousness" // saw consciousness as an evolutionary adaptation to environment that made it possible for humans to thrive and to continue to adapt

consciousness

our state of awareness of our existence, sensations, thoughts, and environment // we are conscious to the degree that we are aware of what is going on both inside and outside our bodies

dualism

belief that mind and brain are distinct entities // the mind (nonphysical) and the brain/body (physical) are completely different things and neither one can be inferred form the existence of the other

materialism

all phenomena are matter, energy, or the interaction between the two // the mind exists as a function of the brain

conscious awareness

includes all the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of at any given moment // "all the ideas in your immediate awareness, such as your thoughts, feelings, senses"

walking consciousness

your normal, alert awareness that includes your working memory

nonconscious level

includes all the various biological processes that are taking place internally and constantly without your noticing // "biological functions occurring without your awareness, such as respiration and digestion"

preconscious level

includes stored information about yourself or your environment that you are not currently aware or thinking of but can easily recall to mind when asked // "items we can access from long-term memory"

subconscious level

includes information you have been exposed to but cannot recall // but, this hidden information or experience can influence your behavior // ex: "mere exposure effect" or familiarity principle // "hidden memories that influence behavior despite no clear memory of them"

unconscious level

Sigmund Freud // an invisible force deep within our minds, a series of unconscious conflicts between competing parts of our personalities that influence our attitudes and actions // parts include id, superego, and ego // "from the psychoanalytic perspective, hidden memories that influence behavior but can never be known to the conscious mind"

id

life and death instincts, immediate gratification, pleasure-seeking

superego

societal or parental standards that we try to live up to

ego

self-image and reality-based part of the mind that tries to balance the id and the superego

biological rhythms

periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning

circadian rhythm

A biological rhythm that defines the sleep/wake cycle of about 24 hours without external cues // 16 hours of wake and 8 hours of sleep

ultradian rhythm

A biological rhythm that follows a cycle of less than 24 hours but longer than an hour // ex: such as eye-blinks, heartbeats and sleep patterns

infradian rhythms

biological rhythms that occur more than a day // ex: menstruation, breeding, seasonal migration cycles

diurnal

active during the day

nocturnal

active at night

chronobiology

the study of these various temporal biological rhythms

electroencephalography (EEG)

measures electrical currents in the brain, recording them as a visual tracing (encephalogram) // electrodes are attached to the scalp to measure the brain's electrical currents during sleep and compare the results to those recorded during the waking hours // EEG measures electrical currents produces as the brain cells communicate with one another // EEG measures wave patterns in hertz (Hz)

delta waves

up to 4 Hz; slow waves // show deep sleep; stage 3 of NREM

theta waves

between 4 and 7 Hz // show stages 1 and 2 of NREM sleep

alpha waves

between 7 and 12 Hz // show relaxed, ready for sleep

beta waves

between 15 and 30 Hz; quick and rapid waves // show awake, alert, anxious

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

"master clock" // in hypothalamus // interprets information taken from the eye and signals the pineal gland to secrete melatonin

melatonin

the sleep hormone // increases naturally at night as darkness falls and then decreases during the day when the light returns

wake/sleep cycle

as daylight lessens, the eyes (rods/cones in the cornea) detect lower light levels, and cells in the retina (ganglion cells) communicate directly w/ the SCN // SCN interprets information taken from the eye and signals the pineal gland to secrete melatonin into the bloodstream

Stage 1 of sleep

nondreaming stage of non-REM (NREM) sleep // our brains produce high-frequency and low-amplitude theta waves

Stage 2 of sleep

our brain's high-frequency and low-amplitude theta waves begin to slow down, we progress into slow-wave sleep // the sleep spindles and k-complexes begin to appear

Stage 3 of sleep

slow-wave deep, delta waves begin to appear more often, hormones are released into the bloodstream for growth in children, our immune system refreshes itself, and sleep is so deep that we can't be easily awakened because we're unaware of our environment // essential for good health...without deep sleep, we are at greater risk for illness and may have difficulties w/ concentration and coordination throughout the day

non-REM (NREM) sleep

nondreaming stage of sleep

slow-wave sleep

the sleep spindles and k-complexes of Stage 2 begin to appear

sleep spindles

slower-paced waves with spikes comparable to the low-amplitude theta waves of Stage 1

k-complexes

large, high-voltage waves that often appear in response to such outside stimuli as sounds

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep

often called the "paradoxical stage" b/c the brain waves move as if we're awake // brain is active, but the brain stem blocks communication between the cerebral cortex and the motor neurons to produce REM paralysis // dream during REM sleep //plays a role in memory formation and consolidation // percentage of REM sleep reduces as we age

REM paralysis

when the brain stem blocks communication between the cerebral cortex and the motor neurons to keep our bodies still during dreams...but we still experience muscle twitches

REM rebound

if we don't experience REM sleep one night, we can make up for it the next day w/ more REM sleep to help the body recover

sleep process

sleep onset, Stage 1, Stage 2, Stage 3, Stage 2, REM, repeat

Sleep Theories

- evolutionary: sleep keeps us safely "tucked away" during the hours when our vision was limited and predators were active
- sleep helps restore health and efficiency / NREM sleep helps restore physiological functions / REM sleep helps restore mental processes
- sleeps helps us consolidate the information of the day and support long-term memory
- sleeps helps us replay and process stressors from the day through dreaming

sleep deprivation

causes memory impairment and moodiness and is associated w/ overeating and eating unhealthy foods

sleep debt

chronic sleep deprivation
- chronic irritability, lack of motivation, anxiety, inability to concentrate, reduced vigilance, longer reaction times, distractibility, reduced energy, restlessness, lack of coordination, poor decision-making, increased errors, forgetfulness, and physical symptoms such as high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and obesity
lack of REM sleep
- hallucinations

sleep-deprivation psychosis

chronic sleep deprivation / sleep debt individuals who suffer breaks from reality

microsleep

when our need for sleep is so great that we're exhausted and we have a brief shift in brain activity from waking to sleeping brain waves that last up to 30 seconds // we lose consciousness and are unaware of our surroundings // symptoms: nodding of the head, drooping eyelids, constant blinking, having a blank stare, and difficulty concentrating // often unaware that microsleep occurred

circadian rhythm disruption

an out-of-sync sleep/wake cycle

jet lag

a circadian rhythm disruption that occurs when you travel across several time zones // adjustment can mentally and physically take up to a week

insomnia

the inability to fall asleep or to stay asleep // can be temporary or chronic // 10-20% of the population // caused by underlying medical or psychiatric conditions, stress, emotional or physical discomfort or pain, use of medications or stimulants, or disruptions to the normal sleep cycle

narcolepsy

a disorder in which a person suddenly falls into REM sleep during waking hours // can occur either during periods of excitement or low activity // lack of activity and staying still for long periods can make narcolepsy symptoms worse // condition occurs because the brain doesn't produce enough orexin

orexin

a neuromodulator that influences wakefulness, arousal, and appetite

cataplexy

the sudden loss of muscle tone

sleep apnea

a condition in which the breathing stops and starts repeatedly during sleep // diagnosis is done in a sleep lab using EEG and EMG to measure brain waves and muscle movement // can be treated with a breathing device that helps force air into the lungs through a mask

obstructive sleep apnea

the throat muscles relax and decrease the opening of the esophagus, disrupting normal breathing // overweight and obese people are especially susceptible because excess fat presses on the airway and cuts off oxygen

complex sleep apnea syndrome

sleep apnea caused by a lack of signals from the brain to the muscles that control breathing

sleepwalking / somnambulism

occurs in NREM sleep during Stage 3, deep sleep

sleep talking

speaking while asleep and occurs in NREM sleep

nightmares

dreams occurring during REM sleep that have disturbing content // can often be recalled when we wake up

night terrors

extreme episodes of nightmares that occur in NREM, Stage 3 sleep // symptoms: arousal, sweating, agitation, and dilated pupils // usually occur early in the night and can be combined w/ sleep walking // are not often recalled when we wake up

REM sleep behavioral disorder

a disorder in which the body is not motionless or "paralyzed" during REM sleep and the person can physically act out dream behavior

dreams

all images, events, sounds, and other sensations experienced during sleep // we all dream, even if we don't remember them

Sigmund Freud's theory of dream interpretation

dreams: a method for reaching into the unconscious mind, a part of the mind that influences behavior but that could not be accessed directly // dreams could represent a form of wish-fulfillment by the unconscious mind that people could not deal with while awake // dreams were either manifest (obvious and open) or latent (hidden) // provide a window to the unconscious and were worthy of interpretation by a trained psychoanalyst

manifest content

what recall from the "story line" of our dreams // obvious and open // only symbolic of something deeper within the unconscious and could be symbolic of repressed desires

latent content

what the dream content actually represented // these symbols were often viewed as sexual // hidden

activation-synthesis theory

views dreams as the mind's attempt to make sense of random neural firings in the brain as we sleep (pons sends signals to the cerebral cortex, creating what we perceive as dreams; neural activity during REM sleep periodically stimulates the brain) // dreams are meaningless

information-processing theory

dreams: the brain's attempt to make sense of what we encounter during the day // the main functions of REM dream-filled sleep as problem-solving and information-processing based on what has occurred during the day // as we shut down our sensory experiences during sleep, the brain has time to process new data acquired during the day, consolidate memories, and rewire connections between brain cells

hypnotism

the induction of a state of altered consciousness that uses the power of suggestion to change specific mindsets but does not make individuals behave contrary to their core principles

hypnosis

an induced altered state of consciousness that heightens a person's suggestibility without losing his or her sense of self or control // people only do under hypnosis what they would be willing to do in their fully conscious state of mind // ineffective in memory recovery // age regression therapy is not effective // can reduce pain // can treat anxiety, depression, gastrointestinal disorders, skin conditions, etc.

suggestibility

openness to responding to suggestion

altered state of consciousness

state in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness

state of suggestibility

makes someone more able to respond positively to recommendations

post-hypnotic suggestion

to encourage a client to respond to desired outcomes

social influence theory

emphasizes the human desire to be viewed favorably // no special state is acquired during hypnosis // no altered state of consciousness // during hypnosis, individuals act out the role expected of them

Ernest Hilgard

Divided consciousness theory of hypnosis; the "hidden observer"

dissociative state

an altered state of divided consciousness

divided consciousness

a state of awareness characterized by divided attention to two or more tasks or activities performed at the same time // allows a person to feel no pain

dissociation theory

approach to explaining hypnosis based on a separation between personality functions that are normally well integrated// "hidden observer"

hypnotic susceptibility scales

contain a standard series of pass-fail suggestions that are read to a subject after a hypnotic induction // measure how easily a person can be hypnotized // a majority of people can be at least mildly hypnotized while a minority (20-30%) can be hypnotized at a deep level

psychopharmacology

the field of study that examines changes induced by drugs in mood, thinking, and behavior

psychoactive drugs

chemical substances that alter perceptions, mood, or behavior // can change consciousness by changing brain chemistry through their specific effects on neurotransmitters // can affect nerve synapses and neurotransmitters in 3 ways: bind w/ receptors/agonists on cell surfaces to support an action, block receptor sites/antagonists to suppress an action, or block the reuptake of neurotransmitters by certain neurons // are able to pass through the blood-brain barrier

agonists

drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter

antagonists

drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter

blood-brain barrier

a semipermeable membrane that protects the brain from substances that may cause brain injury

tolerance

when a chemical is being supplied synthetically by a psychoactive drug for a long time and eventually the brain then produces less of that specific neurotransmitter // creates a need for increasing amounts of the drug to experience the same effects the brain would normally produce on its own // the impact of the drug weakens over time so that increasing doses are required to achieve the same effect a lower dose once provided

neuroadaptation

a process whereby neurons increase or decrease the production of neurotransmitters in response to the chemicals ingested

withdrawal

a set of symptoms associated with discontinuing a drug // it reverses neuroadaptation // symptoms: cravings, tremors, anxiety, depression, seizures, death, etc. // symptoms can be psychological, physical, or both

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

the official guide to diagnosis published by the American Psychiatric Association // lists addictions in the substance-related and addictive disorders category // DSM includes alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, sedative-hypnotics, stimulants, and tobacco // defines the symptoms, diagnoses, intoxication levels, withdrawal symptoms, and indicators for each listed drug

impulse control

the frontal lobe inhibitor to make proper judgement about what to do and not to do

depressants and sedatives

drugs that lower neural activity and slow body functioning

depressants

can cause dependence, tolerance, withdrawal, and psychological addiction // ex: alcohol and barbiturates

alcohol

slows neural processing and thinking and impairs physical activity // reduces activity in the prefrontal cortex // reduces self-awareness and impairs memory by suppressing the processing of events into long-term memory // impairs REM sleep disrupting memory storage // disrupts neurotransmitters // intensifies the effects of GABA leading to sluggish movements and slurred speech // reduces glutamete which slows down reactions and impairs judgement // affects balance and fine motor coordination // causes the release of dopamine in the reward system of the nucleus accumbens

prefrontal cortex

the part of the brain responsible for controlling inhibitions and making judgements

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

the inhibitory neurotransmitter that normally slows the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens

glutamate

an excitatory neurotransmitter

sedatives / tranquilizers / hypnotics

drugs that reduce anxiety or induce sleep // ex: barbiturates // make receptor sites more efficient which increases the efficiency of GABA, inhibiting brain functions, and exerting a calming effect

barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety while also impairing memory and judgement

benzodiazepines

antianxiety drugs // slow the central nervous system leading to muscle relaxation and sedation // depress heartbeat and breathing // they can interact with other drugs (alcohol) and impair memory and judgement

opiates

drugs that reduce neurotransmitter and temporarily reduce pain and anxiety // reduce GABA // result in dependence, tolerance, withdrawal, and psychological and physiological addiction

endogenous opioid peptides / endorphins

natural opiates your body produces // regulate reaction to pain and influence hunger, thirst, mood control, etc.

anhedonia

the inability to feel pleasure physically // happens when dopamine production stops as a result of outside opiates binding to the same receptors as endorphins (endorphin agonists) and the brain eventually stops producing dopamine and natural endorphins

stimulants

ex: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines // drugs that speed up the body's functions // increased energy, mental alertness, and forced wakefulness // can cause dependence, tolerance, withdrawal, and psychological addiction

caffeine

most used drug in the world // acts as an adenosine-receptor antagonist // slows down the impact of adenosine