ap bio final exam review

independent variable

one thing that the experimenter changes on purpose, on the x axis

dependent variable

something that changes as a result of the independent variable, on the y axis

control group

used to establish causality by isolating the effect of an independent variable

constants

the part that doesn’t change during the experiment

hypothesis

proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation

chi-squared test

to compare observed results with expected results

ionic bond

formed by attraction of oppositely charged ions

polar covalent bond

unequal sharing of electrons, water

nonpolar covalent bond

equal sahring of electrons, not water

hydrogen bond

between H and element of a neighboring molecule

hydrolysis

uses H2O to split a molecule

dehydration

takes a H2O molecule out from two components

redox reactions

transfer of electrons OIL RIG

exergonic reactions

releases energy

endergonic reactions

requires energy

excellent solvent

water can dissolve many substances, like ions, gases,and sugars, and it creates a soluble environment for life’s reactions

high heat capacity

water can absorb large amounts of energy without fluctuating in temperature, helps in maintaining homeostasis

why is solid less dense than water

ice floats

strong cohesion

water molecules are attracted to other water molecules and are held together by hydrogen bonds

surface tension

hydrogen bonds create a tight film on water than can allow things to rest on top of the hydrogen bodns

strong adhesion

attraction of water molecules to different substances thar have a charge

climate

average weather in a given area over a longer period of time

life in lakes survive in winter

body temps drop and metabolism slows

cellular reactions

series of chemical reactions that break down glucose to produce ATP

protein folding

polypeptide chain folds to become a biologically active protein

transpiration

the exhalation of water vapor through the stomata

water movement in xylem

transpiration pulls water in the xylem, pulling it upward

pH of acids

1-6

neutral pH

7

pH of bases

8-14

4 biomolecules

carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

function of carbs

energy storage, structure

structures of carbs

monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

examples of carbs

sugars, starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin

function of proteins

structure, transport, defense, catalysis, genetic “traits”

structure of proteins

amino acids, peptide bonds, primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

examples of proteins

enzymes, hair, silk, antibodies

function of lipids

energy storage, structure, hormones

examples of lipids

triglycerides(fats, saturated, unsaturated), phospholipids, steroids(sex hormones, cholesterol)

function of nucleic acids

information storage

structure of nucleic acids

nucleotides: A, T, C, G, U

examples of nucleic acids

DNA, RNA

prokaryotes(bacteria, domain archaea, domain bacteria)

naked circular DNA, ribosomes, no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, sometimes cell wall

eukaryotes(domain eukarya)

nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

animal eukaryotes have what

lysosomes, centrioles

plant eukaryotes have what

cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole

surface area-to-volume ratio

amount of surface area per unit of volume of an object

nucleus

stores DNA

ribosomes

site of protein synthesis in cell

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

synthesis of membrane lipids and steroid(sex) hormones

rough endoplasmic reticulum

synthesis of proteins to be secreted, sent to lysosomes or plasma membranes

golgi apparatus

process, package, and distribute substances produced by rough ER

vesicles

produce lysosomes

mitochondria

site of cellular respiration

chloroplasts

carry out photosynthesis

lysosomes

breaks down and recycles old cell parts

centrioles

develops spindle fibers in cell division

vacuoles

membrane-bound structures, vesicles derived from ER and golgi

flagella

enables movement

cilia

vibrating structure causing currents in the surrounding fluid

cytoskeleton

helps support cell shape

microtubules

form cytoskeleton

intermediate filaments

maintain cell shape, anchor nucleus/some organelles

microfilaments

maintain cell shape, muscle contraction, cell movement

cell wall

protective outer covering, rigid, provides support

desmosomes

adhesive intercellular junctions that mechanically integrate adjacent cells

tight junctions

form the continuous intercellular barrier between epithelial cells

gap junctions

connect the cytoplasm of two cells, allowing molecules, ions and electrical impulses to directly pass through gate

plasmodesmata

gated plant cell wall channels that allow the trafficking of molecules between cells

phospholipid bilayer

a thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules that form a continuous barrier around all cells

hydrophilic heads

face outward, like water

hydrophobic tails

face inward, hate water

amphiphatic

having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts

electron transport chain

a series of protein complexes and other molecules that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors

diffusion

tendency for molecules to spread out evenly into available space

osmosis

diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

facilitated diffusion

transport proteins speed the passive movement of molecules across the PM

active transport

requires ATP, moves substances against their concentration gradient

hypertonic

concentration greater than inside cell, cell loses water

hypotonic

concentration less than inside cell, cell gains water

isotonic

concentration is same as inside of cell, no net water movement across PM

plasmolysis

the process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution

turgid

swollen and distended or congested

vesicular transport

a membrane protein that regulates or facilitates the movement of specific molecules across a vesicle's membrane

exocytosis

fusion of vesicle to membrane for release

endocytosis

the cell takes in macromolecules by forming vesicles from the PM

phagocytosis

“cellular eating”, cell engulfs proteins/nutrients or cell materials

pinocytosis

“cellular drinking”, cell engulfs dissolved ions and molecules

ATP

a molecule that carries energy within cells

catabolism

break down complex molecules into simpler compounds, release energy

anabolism

build complicated molecules from simpler ones, consume energy

structure of enzymes

globular tertiary or quaternary proteins

function of enzymes

metabolic catalysts = lower activation energy

lock and key model

a model for enzyme-substrate interaction saying that the enzyme and substrate have specific shapes that fit exactly into each other

induced fit model

first proposed by Koshland in 1958 to explain the protein conformational changes in the binding process

substrate

molecule that fits in the enzyme

active site

region of enzyme that binds to substrate

enzyme-substrate complex

a temporary molecule formed when the substrate binds to the enzyme

factors affecting function

temp, ph, salts

coenzymes

non protein organic molecules, aids in catalysis