VCE ENVIRO UNIT3/4

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biodiversity

The variability found across all living organisms on earth

3 main objectives of biodiversity

- Conservation of biological diversity
- Sustainable use of the components of biological diversity
- The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources

categories of biodiversity

genetic, species, ecosystem

species

a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring

genetic diversity

Differences in DNA content among individuals within species and population

species diversity

The number and relative abundance of species in a biological community.

species richness

the number of different species in a community

species abundance

The number of individuals of each species

ecosystem diversity

variety of habitats, living communities, and ecological processes in the living world

importance of genetic diversity

higher genetic diversity will increase the resillience.reduce the vulnerability of a species to things like extreme evens, disease and other selection pressures.

biodiversity hotspots

- A biogeographic region that is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity and is threatened with destruction
- Refers to 25 biologically rich areas around the world that have lost at least 70 percent of their original habitat

benefits of biodiversity

regulating services, provisioning services, supporting services

provisioning services

products obtained from ecosystems (food, water, medicine)

regulating services

carbon sequestration and climate regulation

supporting services

the basic ecosystem processes, such as soil formation, nutrient and water recycling, air and water purification)

medium term changes

el nino southern osilation (ENSO)
- short term climatic cycle over 3-8 years

impacts of ENSO

- partly cause of australia's unreliable rainfall
- causes drought in australia
- ENSO induced droughts usually last a year and occur at irregular intervals
- ENSO is the see-sawing changes in sea surface temperature and average atmosphere pressure in and above the pacific ocean

long term changes

evolution, plate tectonics, endemic/edemism, biodiversity hotspots

endemic

where a species in naturally found or native too

methods for assessing species biodiversity

mark recapture, quadrats, transect lines, spotlighting, scat and tracks analysis

mark-recapture method

marking a number of individuals in a population, returning them from where they were captured, and subsequently recapturing some. This forms the basis for estimating the size of the population at the time of the marking and release process.

mark-recapture formula

(1st count x second count) / marked from 1st count = population size

Quadrats

- provide a focused area as a representation of the larger area
- most widely used method to obtain quantitative data about the composititon and structure of plant communities
- some ecologists sugges that quadrats should be about 10% of the total study area

ethical considerations

- ethics approval ensures welfare of animals, both ones studied and other organisms within the broader ecosystem
- beneficence is an important concept in research ethics that states that researchers should have the welfare of the research participant as a goal of any study
- if communities are included there is better long-term effectiveness for the conservation programs and often the locals can benefit from conservation efforts

genetic diversity and morphology

- morphology is the study of the form and structure of organisms
- indicates genetic makeup of individuals within species

measuring species diversity

considers both species richness and relative abundance. application of simple indices, like simpsons index
- endemism

threats to biodiversity

H - habitat loss
I - invasive species
C - climate change
O - overharvesting/overexploitation
P - pollution

Habitat modification and destruction

- habitat destruction results from the clearing of habitat for agriculture and urban or commerical developments
- destruction can be large-scake clearing or fragmentation of habitat
- fragmented habitats (or remnants) may be too small to support viable populations
- degradation refers to the reduction in quality of habitat
- this loss and fragmentation of habitat has reduced Australia's biodiversity

exotic species

- are those which have been deliberately (or accidentally) imported into a new area/region
- may compete with indigenous species for niches

niche

the role and position a species has in its environment, it includes how it meets needs for food and shelter, how it survives, and how it reproduces. Also includes all interactions with the biotic and abiotic factors of its environment

overexploitation of plants and animal species

the result of humans harvesting food or using natural resources above the sustainable level
- results in degradation and loss of habitats and ecosystems, and the reduction of populations, making them vulnerable to disease and natural events

pollution of soil, water and atmosphere

- can upset strucutre of ecosystems, which may reduce or eliminate population of sensitive species
- contaiminants may bioaccumulate or biomagnify

global climate change

likely to alter ecosystem structure and function and can adverse effects on biodiversity

effects on biodiversity

- extinction
- loss of symbiotic organisms
- reduced population size
- genetic drift
- inbreeding

genetic drift

- occurs when the allele frequency is determined by random (stochastic) events rather than natural selection
- some alleles may be eliminated whilst others may increase regardless of being beneficial deleterious or neutral
- occurs in very small populations where chance plays a significant roles in survival
- due to smaller numbers, the founders or survivors will not contain all genetic variability of the original population and their contribution to the next generation is therefore due to chance rather than natural selection
- affects the populations ability to adapt in the long term

Extinction

- A complete disappearance of a species or of a local population
- Natural process - natural rate is about one species per year
- Rate at which species are becoming extinct is increasing (accelerated extinction)

loss of symbiotic organisms

- symbiosis occurs when different species live together in an intimate assoication
- there are 3 main symbiotic relationships
- mutualism
- commensalism
- parasitism

mutualism

A relationship between two species in which both species benefit

reduced population size

- usually smaller populations show less genetic diversity
- this negatively affects the capacity of the population or species to respond and adapt to environmental changes

inbreeding

- breeding between individuals that are genetically related
- related individuals share the same alleles so inbreeding increases the chances of homozgous offspring, which increases the chance of deleterious recessive alleles being expressed
- Increased homozygosity can reduce survival rates and reproductive success, which reduces the population's fitness, this is referred to as inbreeding depression
- Inbreeding does not always lead to a depression
- Some plants don't show any deleterious effects from inbreeding
- Koalas also seem unaffected by inbreeding depression - possibly because recessive alleles have been eliminated from the population

genetic swamping

- occurs when populations that were geographically isolated come into contact and interbreed
- can occur between wild-domestic animals, native-exotic species, wild-feral species
- the populations interbreed to produce hybrids
- if one population is small and the number of hybrids is large, the genes of the larger population spreads throughou the smaller population
- consequently the genetic diversity of the small population

demographic variation

- refers to population growth based on demographic measures such as birth rate, death rate and gender ratio
- demography is the study of vital statistics that affect population size
- can look at the survival pattern for a species
- the chance variation away from average is likely to be greater in smaller populations

key demographic processes that cause population to change over time

B - births
I - immigrants
D - deaths
E - emigrants

population change formula

(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)

conservation categories EPBCA

- extinct
- extinct in the wild
- critically endangered
- endangered
- vulnerable
- conservation dependant

Determining Classification

- Changes in geographic range
- Changes in no individual within range
- Changes to population size
- Extent of habitat
- Known threats
- Reproductive rates
- Date the species was last recorded

risk assesment for extinction

- 2 approaches to estimate risk of extinction
- estimating number of species that can be maintained in a given area
- use of collection of organisms from herbarium and museums
- if the organism has not be seen for 50 years it can be considered extinct

population viability analysis

A method of predicting whether or not a population will persist.
- computer model of the population, incorporating demographic and ecological data

calculating probabilty of extinction

1. multiply the probabilty of extinction at each site
2. multiply by 100 to get a %

methods of protecting environment and populations

- Wildlife corridors: connects populations however can spread disease and fire
- Conservation reserves/protected areas
- Captive breeding and reintroduction programs
- Retaining remnant vegetation: not all vegetations has been cleared and small patches remain. Beneficial for some animal populations
- Translocation: transfer of species from one location to another. Success is variable. Requires a suitable habitat and for the species to thrive in new environment
- Habitat regeneration, restoration
- Gene banks
- Reduction and improved targeting of pesticides in agricultural and urbanised areas

endemism

- endemism of the biodiversity of a region can be expressed as the percentage of endemic species present

vegetation structure

vegetation strcuture of an area is determined by
- type of vegetation that dominates a region
- age of plant
- environmental conditions
- how the individual plants respond to those conditions

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

Regulates the trade of wild endangered species

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species

provides public, private and non-governmental organisations with info

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBCA)

commonwealth government act that identifies and monitors biodiversity, national recovery plans, identifies threatening processes, invasive species, conservation etc

Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (FFGA)

ensures Victorian species survive, flourish and maintain potential for evolutionary development. provide management systems, controls and regulation

World Heritage Convention

cultural and natural heritage sites

intragenerational equity

equity between people of the same generation including considerations of distribution of resources and justice between nations

convention on biodiversity

major objectives
- conservation of biological diversity
- sustainable use of its components
- fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources

precautionary principal

the idea that one should not undertake a new action until the ramifications of that action are well understood

anthropocentrism

A human-centered view of our relationship with the environment.

Biocentrism

The belief that all creatures have rights and values; being centered on nature rather than humans.

Ecocentrism

belief that whole ecological systems have value

beneficence

doing good

intergenerational equity

the idea of fairness and justice between generations and includes the consideration of distribution of resources and assets

ecologically sustainable development (ESD)

development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It balances the economic, social and environmental considerations of phenomena - the triple bottom line (environment, social, economic)

challenges to sustainability

- human population growth
- food security
- water security
- efficient energy resource use

human impacts on earth's system

biosphere - where life exists
hydrosphere - water on earth
lithosphere - outermost solid layer of earth
atmosphere - gaseous envelope of air surrounding earth that protects life

risk

probability that a substance or situation will cause harm or create adverse impacts on people, the environment and/or property

hazard

the potential for a substance of situation to cause harm or to create adverse impacts on persons, the environment and or property

risk assessment

- gives us an understanding of the degree of hazard and illustrates where most benefit can be gained by modifying the system to reduce risk
- objective of risk assessment is to provide details of the potential adverse effects of substances or activities on humans and the environment
- provides a logical approach to analysing and interpreting data with the purpose of predicting and evaluating potential adverse effects on the health of living things

ecological integrity

the ability of an ecosystem to support and maintain ecological processes and a diverse community of organisms

Ecological integrity assessment (EIA)

provides critial information on factors that may be degrading, maintaining or helping to restore an ecosystem

risk management

All efforts designed to preserve assets and earning power associated with a business.
2 options
- no risk option --> no risk is tolerable and project should be terminated if risks are identified
- risk management --> intelligent anticipation of events that may have harmful consequences and actions are adopted to stop the events or minmise their impact

Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)

A process of analyzing all inputs and outputs, through the entire "cradle-to-grave" life of a product, to determine total environmental impact

Steps of a Life Cycle Analysis

1. goal definition - decide purpose and conduct of study and the product/service/policy to be analysed
2. inventory - identify systems or stages in the life cycle to be analysed and all inputs from, and outputs to the environment
3. impact assessment - convert inputs and outputs into the contributions to environmental problems. gives an environmental profile of the products/service/policy
4. improvement - evaluate alternative strategies that could reduce lifetime environmental impacts

management

how we administer an area/project

monitoring

helps us understand how effective management strategies are

conservation of biodiversity and ecological integrity

maintenance of the abundance of different species living within a particular region, the genetic diversity in a population and the ability of an ecosystem to maintain its biotic and abiotic organisation and function in the face of changing environmental condition, including a capacity for self renewal

Efficiency of resource use

use of smaller amounts of physical resources to produce the same product or service while minimising environmental impact

intergeneration equity

development that takes into account its impact on the opportunities for future generations

User-pays principle

calls upon the consumer of a service or resource to pay, directly, for the financial cost of the resource they use, or the cost of its repair.

- encourages efficient and sustainable use of resources and is TIED TO ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE

regulatory frameworks

- legislation put in place by government to regulate different things
- help to control management plans
e.g fishing: what you are allowed to catch, size, number etc
building developments

stakeholders

- people, groups or organisations that have an interest in or could be affected by a project or organisation actions and policies
- effective projects will incorporate consultations with relevant stakeholders before, during and after
- continued consultation is key

monitor projects and change

- need to compare historical data with current data to measure change
- management systems may have been implemented before initial research was conducted
- monitoring practises may have changed
- methods of monitoring may have changed
- legislation and monitoring may have changed
- measures effectiveness of management strategy

monitoring strategies

- will vary greatly depending on projects
- power plant may measure lead levels in soil
- desalination plant may monitor pH macro organism in filtering systems

response to change

- impact minimisation
- risk management

environmental management system (EMS)

part of an overall system which includes organisational structure, planning, activities, responsibilities, practises, procedures, processes and resources for developing, implementing, achieving, reviewing and maintaining the environmental policy

EMS provides benefits to

- environment
- organisation itself
- stakeholders
- community
- envrionmental regulators

industry efficiency

- EMS generate operational efficiencies for companies
- focus on reducing materials, energy usage and waste, cuts cost and provides environmental benefits

environmental effects statement (EES)

A document that researches and presents the findings of and Environmental Impact Assessment.

EES includes

- description of the proposed development
- outline of public and stakeholder consultation undertaken during investigations and usses raised
- a description of the exisiting environment that may be affected
- predictions of significant environmental effects of the proposal and relevant alternatives
- propsed measures to avoid, minimise or manage adverse environmental effects
- a proposed program for monitoring and managing environmental effects during project implementation

community confidence

- an EMS leads to greater community confidence that the environment will be protected
- EMS often include regular community consulation which hekps the community understand management issues and how the project is progressing

cleaner production

- preventive, company-specific environmental protection initiative
- inteded to minimise waste and emissions and maximize product output
- using clearner production means managing the environmental impacts of the whole production process, not just the output, and at the same time improving its economic efficiency

waste minimisation

- This approach aims to minimise the amount of waste generated alongside reduction in raw materials and energy use
- Recognises waste will unavoidably be generated
- Treatment processes that reduce toxicity and volume of waste, such as incineration, are preferred to, or used in conjunction with disposal

Non-renewable resources

a resource that cannot be reused or replaced easily (ex. gems, iron, copper, fossil fuels)

impact of non-renewable resources

most significant impact is the enhanced greenhouse effects (EGE)
- increase in global temperatures is changing ecosystems and increasing sea levels
- emissions from fossil fuel combustion contributes the most to the EGE

energy

the capacity to perform work
- when energy is transferred from an objecto or system it can perform useful work
- so essentially, the work done is a measure of the amount of energy transferred

different forms of energy

Mechanical, Thermal, Chemical, Electrical, Sound, Light, and Nuclear energy.

potential energy

Energy that is stored and held in readiness