Human Development Exam 3

Chapters 9, 10, 11 and 12

Piaget: Preoperational Stage

2-7 years of age

Representational activity increases

Make-Believe Play

Make-Believe Play

Detaches from real-life conditions

Becomes less self-centered

Complex combinations of schemes

Sociodramatic play

where children act out imaginary situations and stories, become different characters, and pretend they are in different locations and times

Benefits of make-believe play

* Children were not always seen as “innocent,” viewed as little adults until 150 years ago
* Can boost creativity, individualism
* Can foster friendships

Dual Representation

The knowlege that certain objects can represent other things; crucial for make-believe play

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exposure to diverse symbols enhances ability to learn dual representation

Egocentrism

Children are unable to put themselves in someone else’s shoes; unable to take someone else’s perspective

Three Mountain Problem

Piagetian task used to assess visual perspective taking in children

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a doll is placed at various locations around a 3-D display of three mountains, and children must indicate how the doll sees the display

Animistic thinking

Tend to look at animals or inanimate objects and give them humanistic traits

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ex. the sun looks happy! the thunder is angry!

Inability to conserve

* Don’t understand that even if something changes shapes, it stays the same
* Video with different shaped glasses with liquids; younger kids think that the taller glass has more juice

Centration

only focused on one characteristic of the object and not taking other factors into consideration

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ex. gram crackers: only focused on the amount of pieces, not how big those pieces are

Irreversibility

Kids are mentally unable to go back in time and think about things and take other things into consideration

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they might be able to understand if you explain it to them but not on their own

Discovery Learning

Active learning: engaged

Sensitivity towards readiness to learn

Some kids are not ready to learn some things

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ex. potty training- sometimes they are not mentally or emotionally ready

Acceptance of individual differences

Even if a child is learning to read at the same time as other children, their process and time it takes will different from other children

Piaget and Education

discovery learning, sensitivity toward readiness to learn, acceptance of individual differences

Egocentric Speech

talk all the time, talk about themselves, maybe in the 3rd person

Self-directed speech

little kids will talk to themselves and maybe talk themselves through tasks; this is what egocentric speech evolves into

Inner speech

for adults, this is mostly inner monologue, non-verbal

Private speech

* Used *primarily* when tasks are challenging but within zone of proximal development
* Talking themselves through a task
* When tasks are difficult, but doable
* Zone of proximal development: when it within their range of ability

Scaffolding

when we teach children tasks that are within their zone of proximal development or just outside it

Guided Participation

* An adult or another student walking them through something; the child is actively participating
* Theory is that children will build their own skills to do tasks

Vygotsky: Assisted Discovery

Includes peer collaboration, not necessarily where an adult is helping a child but the kids are working together

Limitations to Vygotsky’s Theory

* Cultural differences
* Relies heavily on social interaction and culture
* Because of the different cultures, there’s no way to adapt the theory for all cultures
* Does not explain how basic skills differ across cultures

Information Processing Theory

**Attention**, Inhibition, and Planning

Attention

Kid’s attention skills get better over time because their inhibition gets better too

Inhibition

* Ability to “tune things out”
* Reasons why it gets better:
* Prefrontal cortex development
* Greater working memory capacity
* Can hold things for longer periods of time, and can hold more things in their short-term memory
* Working memory capacity gets bigger
* Adult scaffolding

Planning

* Gets better with time
* Ability to think things through and plan things gets better; strategy
* ex. picture with zoo animals and putting camera in left or right box

Memory

Recognition and recall

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memory strategies such as *rehearsal and organization*

Episodic Memory

* Your own personal memory of things that have happened in your life
* The more cues you have, the better your memory is
* Binds stimuli together
* Scripts

Autobiographical Memory

Elaborative style and repetitive style

Elaborative Style

* Going into more detail and talking about their own individual experiences
* In-depth questions about what they had seen; lots of detail
* Expand on what they saw, and how they felt about it
* The best way to memorize information is talking about it, teaching others about it

Repetitive Style

yes or no questions, just talking to a child about facts of the things they experienced

Overlapping Waves Theory

little kids, when trying to solve a problem, will try out all of these different techniques and they’re paying attention to how accurate and how fast that solution is

Accuracy and Speed

* They will pick the solution with the most accuracy and the most speed
* Most accurate solution in the least amount of time

Theory of Mind

* Everyone has a different mind, different thoughts, beliefs, etc.
* Other people might know things you don’t and you might know things others don’t
* Kids take a while to grasp this

Metacognition

* Thinking about thinking
* Very little kids do not think about thinking
* As they develop the ability to do this, they begin to understand theory of mind

False Beliefs

* Examples
* Dolls, hiding the block while sally is out of the room, where will Sally think the block is?
* Video with girl saying “smarties”

Contributing Factors to Developing Theory of Mind

* Language
* Prefrontal cortex development
* Executive Function
* Make-believe play
* Social interaction
* Siblings

Emergent Literacy

not waiting on you to learn how to read, they seek out their own understanding

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aware of letters and sounds

Phonological Awareness

Awareness or ability to work with sounds in spoken language

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Even though kids can’t read yet, they are aware of the sounds of words which will help them learn to read

Ordinality

* the awareness that when you’re counting objects you go in the same order
* Helps children understand every number represents a certain amount

Cardinality

understanding the number of things in a set

Estimation

kids are good at this, better than chance, intrinsic understanding of number up to 5

Home Life

* Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) scores predict intelligence and literacy scores
* Measures quality of home life for that child
* Parent interaction; specifics of that
* Environmental interactions

School and Child Care

* Child-centered vs. Academic Programs
* Child-centered: typically younger children, kids are given opportunities to freely explore and interact with their environment
* Academic Programs: typically older children, more structured, lesson-like learning

Early Intervention

Project Head Start

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Speech delays, motor delays, kids brains are more moldable

Educational Media

Educational television, background TV, educational computer games/apps

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Background tv can become an issue, as it can affect their attention abilities

Vocabulary

Children’s vocab grows exponentially over the next 5 years or so

By age 7, kids can communicate effectively in complete sentences

*Fast-Mapping*

They hear it once and they will immediately remember how to say it and what it means/the context that it’s used in

*Mutual Exclusivity Bias*

this word refers to this object and there’s nothing else that this word can represent

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this makes it hard for kids to grab that things can be called multiple names/labels

ex. a pen is also a writing utensil

*Synactic Bootstrapping*

able to pay attention to how the word is used in a sentence and its context so that when they go to use that word they can use it correctly

*Metaphor*

* Kids do not understand metaphors at the toddler stage. Toddlers are very literal.
* As they get older, they will begin to understand figurative speech

Overregularization

will take words, usually verbs, and overuse them

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ex. irregular verbs; may add -*ed* ending to any verb in past tense

Semantic Bootstrapping

* Paying attention to how verbs are being used, how nouns are being used
* They would recognize if a sentence was out of order
* How do you put the words together to make a sentence in a way that these words make sense

Expansions

* not only repeat the sentence back to them with the correct grammar, but also to use that word in different contexts/sentences to elaborate on it
* this is what is more helpful for kids’ learning

Erikson’s Theory

* Initiative vs. Guilt
* children have sense of purposefulness and want to take on new tasks
* Play as means through which children learn about the world and themselves
* Playing allows children to try out new skills with little to no risk of failure or critique
* Criticizing children for mistakes can hurt their development of initiative

Self-concept

group or set of beliefs one has about themselves

Psychological self-awareness

development of **self-concept**

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elaborative reminiscing on *internal states* enhances self-concept development

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when parents talk to their children about their emotions, thought processes, those kids are more likely to develop their self-concept more quickly

Self-esteem

how you feel about your self-concept (+ or - impact)

develops after self-concept

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judgements about ourselves and feelings about such judgements

Emotional Competence

made up of emotional understanding, emotional self-regulation, self-conscious emotions, and empathy

Emotional Understanding

* attribute emotions to external factors before internal states
* Difficulty interpreting emotions that present conflicting cues

Emotional Self-Regulation Strategies

* Restricting Sensory Input
* Talking to themselves
* Changing Goals

Effortful Control

* Leads to emotional self-regulation
* Examples:
* “It’s an avocado, thanks”
* boy shows good emotional regulation
* Halloween candy prank
* “I thought you were on a diet”

Emotional Self-Regulation is drastically affected by

parental interaction

Emotional Development

* Made up of:
* *emotional understanding*
* *emotional self-regulation*
* *self-conscious emotions*
* *empathy*

Self-conscious emotions

* **Shame**: distress caused by consciousness of wrong or foolish behavior
* feeling bad about who you are as a person
* not healthy for a child
* **Guilt**: the fact of having committed a specified offense

Prosocial behavior

more likely to do things that are nice for other people, regardless if they are going to get a reward or not

Empathy

feeling the other person’s emotions

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ex. when someone else is sad, you are feeling sad with them, feeling sad for them

Sympathy

feeling for the other person, but removed to a point

Peer Sociality in Three Stages

1. Nonsocial Activity
2. Parallel Play
3. Associative Play and Cooperative Play

Associative Play

doing their own thing but occasionally interacting

Cooperative Play

actually playing together

Functional Play

playing with something in the function it was meant for

Constructive Play

Building things, putting things together, creating something out of different parts

Make-believe play

imagination

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Girls engage in more *sociodramatic* (make-believe) play; boys engage in more *rough-and-tumble* play

Interpretive Play

more common in developing nations, acting out everyday things

Inventive Play

more common in industrialized nations

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using your imagination to develop a scenario that would not happen in everyday life; experiences that you have not had direct experience with

Ease of making friends predicts

academic achievement

Social Problem Solving

depends on ability to notice and interpret social cues, to generate and evaluate problem-solving strategies, and to enact a response

Direct Parental Influences

hosting peer interactions, offering guidance on peer interactions

Indirect influences

secure attachments with caregiver, parent-child conversation type, parent-child play

Morality

* externally controlled, regulated by inner standards
* different theories address different aspects of morality development

Psychoanalytic Theory

stresses importance of emotions in morality

Social Learning Theory

moral behavior

Cognitive-Developmental Perspective

* children are active thinkers and make moral judgements based on concepts they construct on fairness and justness
* can distinguish between *moral imperatives* and *social conventions* or *matters of personal choice*
* Rigid moral compass
* Social experience is crucial for moral development

Psychoanalytic Perspective

* obey *superego* to avoid *guilt*
* Largely complete by age 5-6
* BUT, people disagree

Induction

works better than threats or punishment to promote morality

using discipline as a teaching tool

Social Learning Theory

* Morality acquired through reinforcement/modeling
* *Modeling* leads to behavior, which then becomes *reinforced*
* Modeling occurs most when adults display:
* Warmth and responsiveness
* Competence and power
* Consistency
* Basically, any type of reaction to something will cause the child to do it more

Cognitive Developmental Theory

* Children are active thinkers and make moral judgements based on concepts they construct on fairness and justness
* Can distinguish between *moral imperatives* and *social conventions* or *matters of personal choice*

Moral Imperatives

things people do or don’t do because they’re wrong or right things to do; morally right or wrong

Social Conventions

things that a society does that aren’t necessarily morally right or wrong, but just socially normal in society

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ex. saying please and thank you

*Rigid* Moral Compass

black and white view of the world

Social experience is crucial for

moral development

Proactive (Instrumental) Aggression

unemotionally attacking another to achieve a goal

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not out of anger

Reactive (Hostile) Aggression

angry, defensive reaction aimed to hurt another

Three Forms of Aggression

1. Physical
2. Verbal
3. Relational

Gender Typing

relating to one sex or another in ways that conform to cultural expectations

Gender Typicality

how closely you adhere to the gender norms of your society

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this differs by culture

Biological Influences on gender

* Boys and girls produce different levels of hormones even before puberty
* Boys are a little bit more physically active and girls are a little more reserved
* Environment is much more influential

Environmental Influences on Gender

family, teachers, peers, broad social environment