Euro

Renaissance means . . .

rebirth

What was the Renaissance a revival of?

Classical Antiquity

What inspired the Renaissance?

The Renaissance was inspired by increased interest in classical texts from Greece and Rome and a shift to more secular and individualistic ways of thinking.

What was humanism?

Humanism defined Renaissance education and emphasised studying classical history and literature.

What was civic humanism?

Civic humanism was the belief that men should be active politically. This philosophy prepared men for careers in public service.

Whose writing exemplified civic humanism?

Machiavelli and Castiglione

What developments gave rise to a new commercial elite such as the Medicis?

As interest in trade increased and advancement were made in banking and bookkeeping, a new class of commercial elite gained power and wealth.

Who was Petrarch?

An Italian poet whose interest and recovery of classical texts from ancient Rome led him to be known as the "Father of Humanism".

What are some key components of Renaissance art?

Renaissance art emphasised balance, the use of linear perspective to give a three-dimensional appearance, and bright colours.

What is one painting that shows the influence of humanism?

Raphael's "School of Athens" depicts humanist ideals in subject matter and style. Contemporary figures of the time were placed among great classical figures such as Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle. The painting contains references to classic structures from Greece and Rome.

What allowed humanistic studies to spread across Europe?

The printing press because the invention allowed books to be faster and easier. The increase of books made them more accessible to the majority of people in Europe.

Why was the printing press important?

The printing press allowed for the spread of knowledge due to a significant increase in the number of books being produced. The increase in books allowed literacy rates to rise. It also began a new era of mass communication as it enabled the transmission of mass quantities of information to a multitude of people across long distances.

What influenced Northern Renaissance writers?

Northern Renaissance writers were influenced by Christian humanism and emphasised Christian principles and reform as opposed to individualistic and secular focus of the Italian Renaissance writers.

Name two Northern Renaissance writers.

Thomas More and Erasmus

Why was Erasmus important?

He is one of the best-known proponents of Christian humanism who used the Gospel to oppose Church practices such as the wealth of bishops in his work "The Praise of Folly". He used a classical text, the Bible, to advocate for reform.

How did the power dynamics of Monarchs shift during the fifteenth century?

Previously, Monarchs had to bend to the will of the Church and nobility, however they began to centralise their power in the fifteenth century.

How did monarchs in England, France, and Spain centralise their power?

Monarchs began collecting taxes directly and established more influence over the religious lives of their subjects.

How did Ferdinand and Isabella influence Spain?

Their marriage unified Spain and their use of the Spanish Reconquista recaptured territory from the Muslims. To finance the Reconquista, they instituted the "crusade tax", which resulted in more money in the royal treasury. Lastly, they declared Spain a Christian country and expelled Muslims and Jews who would not convert, using the Inquisition to prevent any Jews and Muslims from hiding in Spain.

Causation: What did the centralisation of tax collection cause and why?

The centralisation of tax collection allowed European monarchs to gain wealth that was then used to finance voyages of exploration and develop new navigational technologies. The exploration led to the establishment of colonies and trade, generating additional wealth and power for European monarchs.

What led to the discovery of the New World?

European monarchs wanted to find a nautical trade route to Asia after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans (Trade routes through the Ottoman Empire was risky). New advances in nautical technology made such a journey possible.

What was the Columbian Exchange?

The exchange of people, goods, food, animals, ideas, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds. Europeans brought live stock and diseases to the New World, bringing tomatoes, potatoes, and tobacco back to the Old World. Missionaries also spread Christianity throughout the New World.

What inspired the Reformation?

A desire to resolve the issues that arose in the late medieval Catholic Church and to reinterpret Christian doctrines inspired the Reformation.

What criticisms about the Catholic Church arose?

People began to criticise the Church's accumulation of wealth through simony and selling indulgences.

Simony

The purchase of church offices.

Indulgences

Papal Pardons intended to reduce of even eliminate punishment in the afterlife for sins committed while alive.

How did Martin Luther challenge the Church?

Martin Luther wrote the 95 Theses, a list of grievances with the Church. His idea of sola scriptura stated that people only needed the Bible.

Why did the Catholic Church support Baroque art?

The Catholic Church's support for Baroque art was due to its extravagant style that contradicted the austerity of Protestant art.

What are the characteristics of Baroque art?

Baroque art was extravagant with sharp contrasts and detail that inspired awe and religious devotion in the viewer. This form of art contrasted the iconoclasm(destruction of idols) of the radical reformation.

What other reform movements appeared during this time?

John Calvin, founder of Calvinism, argued for an entirely new system of systematic theology as opposed the Luther's incremental reform. His followers were the Huguenots in France, the separatists in England, the Presbyterians in Scotland, and most inhabitants of the Netherlands.

What is one example the illustrated armed conflict between Reformers and the followers of the Catholic Church?

The French Wars of Religion were a result of several noble families with different religious allegiances struggling for power. It was during this time when Catholic mobs killed thousands of Protestants in what became known as St. Bartholomew's Day (though this massacre took place over several weeks as opposed to one day). Henry IV of France ended this conflict by converting from a Huguenot to a Catholic before being crowned king. His issuing of the Edict of Nates allowed religious pluralism.

How did the Catholic Church change during the Catholic Reformation?

The Catholic Reformation/Counter Reformation was a response to the Protestant Reformation in which the Church implemented new practices intended to curb the worst excesses of the medieval church while reaffirming its theological interpretation of scripture. Influence from the humanist movement led the Church to require a higher literacy rate among priests. The Church also limited the sale of indulgences, eliminated absenteeism, and halted to sale of church offices.

How did the Catholic Church remain the same during the Catholic Reformation?

The Catholic Church did no alter its interpretation of Christian doctrine. Their rejection of Luther's idea of salvation through faith alone reaffirmed their doctrinal position of achieving salvation through faith and good works. The Church's emphasis on the importance of the Church hierarchy and ultimate authority of the Pope furthers the argument that the Church retained many preexisting aspects of their belief during the Reformation.

Why did Ignatius of Loyola found the Jesuit order?

He founded the Jesuit order as a way to support the Catholic Church in spiritual warfare against the protestant reformers.

How did the Protestant Reformation cause a reformation of society?

Challenges to Church practices and interpretations of religious doctrines during the Reformation reduced the Church's authority throughout Europe. The new ideas presented during the Protestant Reformation allowed European nations to reevaluate the civic governments and challenge to power of monarchs.

How did the Reformation's challenge to existing norms lead to the reorganisation of society?

The Reformation and the Renaissance challenged women's roles in the family, church, and society, exemplified by Luther's wife Katherine Von Bora. She was educated and a former nun, however she opposed the idea of a celibate clergy. Their marriage became the model of a Protestant family where men and women undertook separate but complementary tasks to serve God. Quakers argued for women to be able to be ordained and be given roles as religious authorities.

How did the Reformation change the scope of authority for many civic governments?

Challenges to the Catholic hierarchy during the Reformation shifted the responsibility to regulating public morals from the Church to the state. Policies in regards to prostitution, begging, public drunkenness, and similar offences deemed immoral were developed by the governments of cities across Europe. Offenders of these crimes were severely punished.

Describe Louis XIV's ascension to the throne and how these events affected his rule.

Louis XIV became king at age four. Upon his ascension to the throne, the nobles plotted to overthrown during the Fronde. The Fronde became a series of civil wars in France. This event instilled feelings of distrust of the nobles in Louis XIV that led to him institute policies that limited the power of nobility. The capital was moved to Versailles and nobles were required to be at court, the selling of titles of nobility diluted the ranks of nobility, and the military was made to answer directly to the king. He made the nobility socially and politically dependent on the king, ultimately undermining the power of nobility.

What was an absolute monarch?

Absolute monarchs consolidated their power and rule. They used divine right as a claim to power and argued that the use of parliament or a constitution to limit a king's power would be against God.

Why was Charles I's relationship with Parliament contentious?

Charles I of England began his reign in 1625 attempting to be an absolute monarch. The gentry (large landowners) as well as religious dissenters such as the Puritans and English Calvinists Supported Parliament.

What did John Locke argue?

John Locke believed the government should be based on a social contract between the people and the government, ideas that became popular among Parliamentarians.

What events followed Charles I's ascension to the throne?

Charles I's ascension to the throne and disagreements with Parliament culminated in the English Civil War. Charles I was beheaded while William III and Mary II ascended to the English throne in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. They were required to sign the Bill of Rights before taking the throne.

How did the Bill of Rights limit the power of English monarchs?

The Bill of Rights established Parliament as the governing body of England that was not subject to influence by the monarchy.

What allowed the Netherlands to rise to a position of economic, political, and technological prominence during the seventeenth century?

A revolt against the Catholic Hapsburg ruler Philip II of Spain allowed various counties to come together as an independent nation that became the Dutch Republic. This resulted in an oligarchy that shared a language and economic interests.

What fueled the Dutch Golden Age?

Protestant work ethic as well as cheap energy sources and the birth of corporate finance in the Netherlands fueled the Dutch Golden Age. The Dutch East India Company became the first multinational corporation that was financed by the purchase of shares on a stock market in 1602.

How did the selling of stock affect Dutch trading companies?

Dutch trading companies were able to raise capital while minimising the financial risk that came with trading in the Far East. This resulted in the Dutch East India Company becoming dominate in the trade of spices.

What defined Dutch Golden Age art?

Art from the Dutch Golden Age depicted either real life scenes of illustrations of Dutch adages and moral lessons. Individual components were depicted realistically, however the combination of the different elements created a scene that did not reflect an actual moment.

Compare absolute monarchs vs. constitutional monarchs.

They approached sovereignty differently with absolutist states believing sovereignty resided with the monarch and constitutional states believing sovereignty resided with the parliament.

Explain mercantilism.

Mercantilism was an economic philosophy where nations believed they should produce as much of its own goods as possible while limiting the imports from other countries. This was an attempt to increase the wealth of one's own nation by preserving national revenue. This resulted in the expansion of colonial empires and development of plantations that would produce raw materials. Economists such as Adam Smith objected to this.

How did mercantilism serve the interest of absolute monarchs?

The use of mercantilist policies in France allowed Louis XIV and his finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert to turn their country into a manufacturing power. The putting out system allowed France to develop a reputation as a manufacturer of luxury goods. The money made from these policies allowed Louis XIV to fund extravagant expenditures such as Versailles that ultimately emphasised his reputation as an absolute monarch.

Why did the Scientific Revolution come about?

The Scientific Revolution began when scientists challenged the teachings of the Church and the ideas of Ptolemy, Aristotle, Galen, and other ancient authorities who gained prominence during the Scientific Revolution. The use of empiricism, the idea that truth should be based on observation and experimentation; and rationalism, the idea that any scientific ideas should be based on reason rather than emotion, allowed scientists to draw conclusions through the use of the scientific method.

How did Galileo oppose the Catholic Church during the Scientific Revolution?

Galileo's use of the observational techniques of the Scientific Method as well as the use of the Renaissance ideas of Copernicus led to him arguing for heliocentrism. The Catholic Church and the Inquisition accused him of heresy due to the Church's belief in the geocentric theory. The Church forced him to recant his theories and made him spend the rest of his life under house arrest.

What other scientists faced challenges from the Catholic Church?

William Harvey broke the Church's ban on autopsies to study the human body and René Descartes use of defence of deductive reasoning resulted in his book becoming prohibited by the Church.

What influenced the development of Neoclassism?

Neoclassism was influenced by Enlightenment ideas of rationality and seriousness. The art and architecture of classical antiquity became inspiration for artists of the time.

What defined Neoclassism?

Neoclassism was defined through the use of clean lines, strong shading, and the absence of brush strokes in paintings. Architecture featured columns and friezes that emphasized classical themes, symmetry, and decorative garlands.

How did the Scientific Revolution influence the Enlightenment?

New innovations in astronomy, anatomy and mathematics inspired intellectuals to apply the principles of the Scientific Revolution to questions about society and human institutions. The methods of the Scientific Revolution caused Enlightenment philophes to reevaluate the political structures and social values of European nations.

What idea did philosophes such as John Lock and Jean-Jacques Rousseau focus on?

The idea of the social contract became prominent during the Enlightenment. This way of thinking focused on the relationship between political leaders and the people they ruled over, saying that rational governments should respect the will of the people as a political force as opposed the the ruler having unchecked power (opposes the divine rights of kings).

How did Adam Smith challenge the idea of mercantilism?

Adam Smith believed that free trade was a more rational way of supporting the economy. His belief was that economic liberalism, a free market economy, would promote economic growth if each participant in the system was allowed to act in their own self-interest.

How did the Enlightenment affect the government?

Eastern and central European monarchies searched for ways to combine Enlightenment ideas with the hereditary monarchy, giving rise to enlightened absolutist monarchs. These monarchs, including Frederick the Great of Prussia, issued policies mirroring Enlightenment ideals such as the issuing of religious tolerance towards minorities in his lands. Prussia and its enlightened monarchy became more active in European affairs after the power vacuum. The power vacuum occurred after the decline the Holy Roman Empire faced following the Peace of Westphalia.

What direct challenges did Enlightenment ideas lead to in western Europe?

Western Europe faced challenges to the structure of national governments and concepts of hereditary social authority. Resentment towards the hereditary monarchy lead to increasing secularisation and gradual loss of authority for the Church and hereditary nobility. The result of resentment towards hereditary authority in France was that of the French Revolution.

How did the British Agricultural Revolution affect 18th century society and culture?

The British Agricultural Revolution ushered in new agricultural technologies that allowed more food to be produced with less effort. This caused the population to grow. The increased availability of healthy food combined with the development of an inoculation against smallpox led to higher levels of health and, in turn, higher life expectancies. However, the decreased demand for workers displaced many people from rural areas and forced these people to find opportunities in urban settings. Coffeehouses became the centre of intellectual and people would come here to discuss Enlightenment ideas. Increased life expectancy and decreased infant mortality from scientific advances caused Europeans to dedicate more time and resources to family life.

How did the rise of urban settings create social challenges for new urbanites and city governments?

New challenges in regards to communal living as well as urban health and sanitation arose from the influx of migrations to cities.

What ideas did Jean-Jacques Rousseau develop?

In addition to his political belief in the social contract, he also believed in a form of education the encouraged the use of free thinking as opposed to memorisation.

What led to the development of commercial rivalries among European states?

Intellectual movements such as capitalism encouraged European countries to expand their commercial systems into a worldwide network of trade. Conflict arose over who should control the trade routes. The Dutch ultimately gained near complete control of the East Indies while Britain expanded its domain to India.

What was the result of French and English tensions?

French and English tensions over power culminated in armed conflict during the French and Indian War as well as the Seven Years' War. France supported the Americans militarily and financially during the American Revolution. The loss of their colonies in North America did not stop the British, however, as they retained a vast empire.

What caused the rise of Romanticism?

Romanticism was a response to the rationality of the Enlightenment. Its glorification of emotion and individualism was accomplished through lifting up natural and aesthetic experiences.

What Romantic works emphasise emotion?

The work of William Wordsworth and Samuel Coleridge in Lyrical Ballads argues that poetry was "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings." The painting Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog by Casper David Friedrich places a similar emphasis on emotion. This piece depicts a man atop a mountain looking into a sea of fog, exhibiting feelings of loneliness and a sense of being lost.

What was the cause of the French Revolution?

The French Revolution was the result of long-standing tensions between different French social classes as well as more recent fiscal and economic crises. Ideas from the Enlightenment led people to question the class system. France's raising of taxes in order to compensate for their aid during the American Revolution as well as additional taxes became a burden the French people were unable to bear. The beginning of the French Revolution was due to the bourgeoisie's force for limitations on monarchs and the growing cries for a constitutional monarchy.

What was accomplished during the initial liberal phase of the French Revolution?

The liberal phase of the French Revolution established a constitution, abolished hereditary noble privilege, and nationalised the Catholic Church.

What replaced the liberal phase of the French Revolution?

A more radical phase dominated by the Jacobins and the sans-culottes replaced the initial liberal phase. This phase replaced much of what was accomplished during the liberal phase. Maximillien Robespierre led the government and used violence, especially with a guillotine, to eliminate those associated with pre-Revolutionary French ideas. This period of executions and fear in France became known as the "Reign of Terror".

What group/people rose to power after the end of Robespierre's Reign of Terror?

The Directory replaced the radical Jacobins. The Directory was followed by the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Describe the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Napoleon became the leader of France in 1804 after the turmoil of the French Revolution. He was a military leader during the French Revolutionary Wars. The breaking down of traditional French institutions effectively destabilised the sense of what in meant to be a part of the French nation. Napoleon managed to rise to power from claims that a new nation could emerge from the revolution. This new nation, he said, would continue to uphold the revolution's ideas of equality, fraternity, and liberty.

Describe the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Upon crowning himself emperor, Napoleon was able use his authority to institute social and cultural reforms. Although he did align himself with the Catholic Church, he took a similar stance to enlightened absolutist monarchs in that he allowed religious tolerance. His development of the Napoleonic Codes, which were laws that applied to all members of society equally.

What was the stance of most European aristocracy towards Napoleon?

The European aristocracy almost universally opposed Napoleon. Despite this, Napoleon's influence in France and the strength of the French military allowed him to dominate European politics.

How did the Enlightenment and French Revolution cause the Congress of Vienna?

Enlightenment ideas motivated the French Revolution, including liberal and radical phases. Napoleon Bonaparte's rise to power and establishment of a sense of order on the heels of the French Revolution threatened other European nations that conspired to overthrow him. They developed a more favourable balance of power at the Congress of Vienna.

Why was the French Revolution threatening to European nations?

The combination of the significant political upheaval as well as ideas that arose during the French Revolution such as that of social equality and the abolition of hereditary privilege became a threat to European nations. The belief was that ideas of equality presented in French documents such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man as well as the advocacy for women's rights by those such as Olympe de Gouges could potentially upset political institutions in Europe.

Describe the Congress of Vienna.

The Congress of Vienna occurred after the defeat of Napoleon . The European aristocracy took the opportunity to create a new European order under the conservative leadership of Prince Metternich of Austria. The result was a conservative balance of power across Europe through mutual agreement from the Great Powers of Austria, Britain, France, Russia, and Prussia.

Describe the Age of Metternich.

The Age of Metternich lasted from the end of the Napoleonic wars in 1815 to the beginning of the revolutions of 1848. During this time conservative ethos began to spread across Europe, opposing revolutionary movements, attempting to weaken forces of nationalism, and using political authority of the Great Powers to maintain a balance of power. The balance of power, which was established at the Congress of Vienna, allowed for stability in European politics for several decades.

Why did the First Industrial Revolution begin in Britain?

Britain had the natural factors such as availability of coal, iron, and rivers; and human factors such as a political climate more favourable to property rights and the surplus of labor from the British Agricultural Revolution. The primary focus of the First Industrial Revolution was on textiles and began with the cottage industry before moving to productions within factories.

What advances made production within factories possible?

The invention of the water frame and the steam engine allowed production to occur within factories.

How did the First Industrial Revolution affect European populations?

Populations began moving away from rural areas to urban areas in order to find work in factories.

What was industrialisation like in continental Europe?

Industrialisation in continental Europe was slower and less socially disruptive. French industrialisation occurred gradually but with more direct government support. Industrialisation in Germany was initially slow, however the rule of Bismarck allowed them to become an industrial leader.

What was realism a response to?

Realism began during the Second Industrial Revolution as a response to the emotionality, emphasised during Romanticism, which would often exclude the depiction of real events. Realism depicted life with its imperfections.

How did industrialisation foster realism?

Industrialisation provided realists with fresh material as social realities of the time were harsh. It allowed artists the ability to question the social order through their art.

What artists dominated realism?

Realism was dominated by artists such as Gustave Courbet, Jean Francois Millet, and Honore Daumier.

What separated the First Industrial Revolution from the Second Industrial Revolution?

The Second Industrial Revolution was a shift from textile production to the mass production of steel and machinery. This led to the discovery of the Bessemer process as well as infrastructure advances in railroads.

How did advances in railroads affect Europe?

Railroads allowed for more fully integrated economic systems where manufactured goods were transported across greater distances. Railroad hubs became magnets for urban centres, however these cities were often densely populate and had many social and health problems.

How did developments in communication and transportation during the Second Industrial Revolution affect the economic landscape?

The invention of the internal combustion engine, telegraph, telephone, and radio allowed for the creation of new industries and enhanced the quality of life for many people. Technologies discovered in the Second Industrial Revolution would be used in World War I.

How was the balance of power maintained?

The Concert of Europe, which was an alliance system that attempted to maintain the status quo by suppressing nationalism and liberalism, maintained the balance of power in Europe.

How did industrialisation cause the breakdown of the concert of Europe?

Traditional models of production and the traditional order of society were challenged during the Industrial Revolutions. The bourgeoise rose to power, leading to class consciousness, a rise in class conflict, and the popularity of liberal ideas of individual rights and popular sovereignty. Liberalism challenged the conservative ideals embodied by the Concert of Europe. Liberalism also led to social reform movements and institutional responses to address the worst excess of industrialisation

Describe the revolutions of 1848.

Revolutions occurred in France, Italy, and German states, however were unsuccessful in achieving their broad goals. These revolutions did contribute to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe and the decline of conservatism in Europe.

How did the revolutions affect Britain?

Britain did not experience revolutions but were forced to address the political trends through the passing of several parliamentary reforms that expanded suffrage and improved conditions for the working class.

What led to the development of a class consciousness?

As large populations migrated from rural to urban areas, a wide gap emerged between the bourgeoisie that owned the factories and the proletariat the worked in the factories. The traditional authority of the landed gentry and nobility was challenged by the rising influence of the bourgeoisie.

Who are the proletariat?

The people that work in the factories.

What did socialists such as Karl Marx argue?

Socialists argued that the social divisions that were appearing would eventually lead to the destruction of the economic system.

What caused the working conditions in factories to improve?

Working conditions improved slowly through the work of labor unions that advocated for laws reducing the workday to ten hours, improving conditions for women and children, and regulating the rights of factory owners over their workers.

What was the response of cities?

Cities used public health campaigns, police forces, and modernised urban infrastructure to transform unsafe and overcrowded urban housing.

What did liberals believe were the best ways to address the social challenges of industrialisation?

Liberals believed social challenges of the industrialisation should be addressed through popular sovereignty and universal male suffrage.

What idea dominated European politics in the 19th century?

European politics was dominated by the idea of a nation, which was understood to be a community bounded together by a shared language and culture.

How was loyalty to the nation encouraged?

Romantic idealism, liberal reforms, political reunification, and, in the case of Zionism, and attempt to counteract the growing anti-Semitism of Europe was used to encourage loyalty to the nation.

How were Giuseppe Garibaldi and the Count of Cavour inspired by the revolutions of 1848?

Italian nationalism motivated a failed attempt at unifying the different principalities of Italy in 1848. Giuseppe Garibaldi and the Count of Cavour were influenced by these revolutions and became interested in developing a cohesive Italy. They were inspired to put their differences aside in order to unify Italy.