Bio101 Exam 2

Metabolism

Sum of all chemical reactions in the body

Enzymes

biochemical catalysts, usually a protein

Degradation

substrate broken down into smaller products

Synthesis

substrates combined to produce larger product

Coenzyme

nonprotein molecules that assist in the activity of an enzyme

Mitochondria

double membrane bound organelle that converts glucose into ATP via cellular respiration

Glycolysis

Step 1, process of splitting glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules

Pyruvate

3 carbon chain molecules

Fermentation

Anaerobic process for cellular metabolism that does not utilize Citric Acid Cycle or Electron Transport Chain, produces 2 ATP per glucose, creates lactic acid build up

Tissue

Composed of specialized cells of the same type that perform a common function in the body

Connective Tissue

Diverese in structure and function, specialized cells, ground substances, protein fibrs

Ground Substances

noncellular material that seperates cells

Collagen Fibers

white, contain collagen, a protein that gives flexibility and strength

Reticular Fibers

Very thin collagen fibers, finely branched, forms delicate supporting network

Elastic Fibers

contain elastin, can stretch to 100x their size without breaking, provide tissue with flexibility

Loose Fibrous tissue

includes areolar and reticular connective tissue, supports epithiliem in many internal organs, allows organs to expand,

Adipose Tissue

Special type of loose connective tissue, made of adipocytes that enlarge to store fat, little extracellular matrix, fill with liquid fat for storage

Enzymes

biochemical catalysts (usually protein)

Degredation

substrate broken down into smaller products

Krebs Cycle

Step 2, also known as citric acid cycle, enzymatic reaction that breaks down remaining C-C bonds in pyruvate, produces 1 ATP per pyruvate

Electron Transport Chain

Step 3, aerobic process that uses NADH and FADH2 to set up chemical and energy gradient in intermembrane space, produces ATP as protons return to matrix, generates 25-38 ATP per pyruvate

Chromosomes

tightly bundled chromatin used to transmit genetic info from one cellular generation to the next

Chromatin

the DNA and associated proteins found in the nucleus of a cell

Karyotype

display of an individual chromosomes, often used prior to birth to detect potential birth defects

Sister Chromatids

in dividing cells, each of the two identical parts that make up a chromosome

Centromere

holds the chromatids togehter until cell division occurs

Cell Cycle

made up of 2 parts, interphase and Cell Division

Interphase

time when the organelle in the cell carry on their usual funstions such as growth or is perparing for cell division

Cell Divison

process by which cells replicate, creating two nearly identical cells

Mitosis

nuclear division in which genetic material is duplicated before the nucleus divides into two identical nuclei

Cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm of the cell

Checkpoints

Delay the cell cycle unless certain conditions are met, at G1, G2, and M

G1 Checkpoint

makes sure growth factors are present and cell is duplicating organelles, DNA integrity is intact

G2 Checkpoint

checks the DNA has actually replicated

M Checkpoint

between metapahse and anaphase, makes sure chromosomes are properly attached to spindle and equally ditributed to daughter cells

Parent Cell

body cell that will divide by mitosis

Daughter cell

body cell that results from mitosis

Diploid

cell has 2 sets of each chromosome, typical human body cells

Haploid

cell has one set of each chromosome, typical human gamete cell

Centrosome

microtubule organizing the center of a cell, made up of two centrioles

Centriole

short cylinders of microtubules

Mitotic Spindle

after centrosomes duplicate, they separate to form the poles of the structure

Prophase

Duplicated centrosomes move away from middle cell, spindle fibers appear

Prometaphase

spindle fibers attach to the centromeres as chromosomes shorten and thicken, spindle poles move to oppostie sides of the cell

Metaphase

The spindle is fully formed, the metaphase plate becomes obvious, chromosomes aline in single file line along metaphase plate

Anaphase

The spindle begins to move the chromosomes, pulling sister chromatids apart

Telophase

Chromosomes disperse into chromatin, spindle disappears, nuclear envelope forms 2 daughter nuclei

Cytokenesis

process that occurs after mitosis in which organelles and cytoplasm is divided into 2 daughter cells

Cleavage Furrow

the indentation between future daughter cells appears in the anaphase of mitosis

Meiosis

also called “reduction division” gametes are made

Prophase 1 Meiosis

Synapsis occurs, crossing over occurs

Metaphase 1 Meiosis

Homologous pairs align at cell equator, genetic diversity increases

Anaphase 1 Meiosis

Homologous chromosomes separate, and entire sister chromatids are pulled instead of chromosomes

Telophase 1 Meiosis

Daughter cells have one chromosome from each homologous pair

Interkenesis

the time between meiosis 1 and 2, a cell duplicates organelles nessacary

Prophase 2 Meiosis

cells have one chromosome from each homologous pair

Metaphase 2 Meiosis

chromosomes align at the metaphase plate

Anaphase 2 Meiosis

Daughter chromosomes move toward the poles

Telophase 2 Meiosis

Spindle disappears, nuclei form, cytokinesis takes place

Daughter cells

meiosis results in 4 haploid daughter cells

Nondisjunction

a failure of homologous chromosomes or daughter chromosomes to separate correctly during meiosis 1 and 2

Trisomy

one chromosomes is present in normal body cells with 3 copies

Monosomy

one chromosome is present in normal body cells with only one copy, all except X are fatal, and will not make viable zygote

Autosomal Trisomy

usually fatal, often viable for chromosome 21, down syndrome

Barr Body

inactive body of chromatin

Deletion

occurs when an end of a chromosome breaks off or when 2 simultaneously breaks lead to the loss of internal segment

Duplication

presence of a chromosomal segment more than once in a single chromosome

Inversion

a segment of chromosomes flips 180 degrees

Translocation

movement of genetic information from one chromosome to a non-homologous chromosome

Genes

segment of DNA on a chromosome that code for one trait of characteristics

Locus

specific location on a chromosome when a gene is located

Allele

an alternate form of a gene

Dominant Allele

only one copy of this allele needs to be present in order to be expressed

Recessive Allele

2 copies of this allele need to be present in order to be expressed

Homozygous

possessing alike alleles for a given trait

Heterozygous

possessing unlike alleles for given trait

Genotypes

which alleles an individual has a particular trait often represented by capital and lower case letters

Phenotypes

Physical appearence of a trait with respect to the dominant alleles

P generation

parents that are theoretically mated to produce F1 generation

F1 generation

first filial generation, usually 100% heterozygous

Carriers

heterozygous person that is recessive for a condition

Dense Fibrous

contain many collagen fibers packed together, making strong felxible connection between tissues

Tendens

connect muscle to bone

Ligaments

connect bone to bone at joint

Cartilage

firm, whitish, flexible

Hyaline

most common, glossy transparent, found in nose and ends of long bones, fetal skeleton

Elastic Cartilage

contains many elastin fibers, very flexible, outer ear

Fibrocartilage

Matrix with strong collagen fibers, disks between vertebrate

Bone Connective tissue

most rigid, hard matix of inorganic salts

Compact bone

made of cylindrical units, osteons, central canal is hollow, nerves and blood vessels run through

Spongey Bone

appears as an open lattice of irregular bars, places, and spaces, follows stress lines, and allows large vessels and marrow to be housed within bone

Blood Fluid Connective

performs transport of CO2 and O2, distributes heat, helps balance fluid ion levels

Erythrocytes

RBC, bioncave, anucleate, binds to oxygen

Leukocytes

WBC, have a nucleus, makes antibodies, attacks invading agents

Thrombocytes

fragments of giant cells only found in bone marrow, act as patching to stop bleeding, releases platlets

Lymph

clear fluid derived from fluids of surrounding tissues

Lymph Nodes

made of fibrous connective tissue, serve as a place for WBC to congregate

Muscular Tissue

specalized cells, muscle fibers that contract

Skeletal Muscle

attach tendons to bones, voluntary control, provides locomotion, striations of myosin and actin

Smooth Muscle

moves substances in cativites of the body, not voluntary, single nucleus, no striations, spindled, in intestines and bladder