UNIT ONE (1-6)

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82 Terms

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Evolutionary Perspective

Study of how psychological traits & behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival & reproductive success. (flight or fight)

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Natural Selection

Process by which organisms w/ traits that are better suited to their environment = more likely to survive & reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits to future gens (traits/behaviors have evolved overtime in response to environmental pressures)

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Nature “Genes”

Inherent biological & genetic factors that influence an individual’s psychological development, traits, behaviors, & cognitive abilities.

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Nurture “Environment”

Environmental influences & experiences that shape an individual’s psychological development, behaviors, & cognitive abilities.

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Twin Studies

Examines similarities & differences b/w identical (monozygotic) & fraternal (dizygotic) twins to assess the relative influence of genetics & environment on traits & behaviors.

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Adoption Studies

Investigates similarities b/w adopted children & their biological adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics vs. environment on various traits & behaviors (nature vs. nurture)

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Family Studies

Analyzes similarities & differences b/w strong family members, including parents & siblings, to understand the interplay of genetics & environment in shaping traits & behaviors within a family unit.

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Heredity

Transmission of genetic info from biological parents to offspring. Helps figure out how much of our traits come from our genes & how much comes from our environment.

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Genetic Predisposition

Inherited likelihood of developing specific traits/conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents.

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Eugenics

Belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits & decrease undesirable ones.

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Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, including perceiving, & decision making.

  • Highly folded to increase its surface area, allowing for complex neural processing & integration of info.

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Lobes of the Brain

4 main regions/sections which cerebral cortex (outer layer of brain) is divided. Inc frontal, parietal, temporal, & occipital lobes

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Association Area

Parts of the brain that take info from all over the place (what we see, hear, smell, & touch) & put together to help us understand the world around us.

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Frontal Lobes

Located at the front of the brain, they are involved in higher-level cognitive functions, including decision-making, problem-solving, planning, & personality expression.

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Prefrontal Cortex

Region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions & executive functioning (set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, strategize, focus attention, regulate emotions, & manage time efficiently)

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Motor Cortex

Region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for planning, executing, & controlling voluntary movements of the body.

  • Sends signals to the muscles, enabling us to perform actions such as walking, talking & grasping objects.

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Parietal Lobes

Located @ top of brain, responsible for processing sensory info from the body, such as touch, temperature, & spatial awareness

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Somatosensory Cortex

Region of the brain located in the parietal lobe, responsible for processing sensations from skin, muscles, & joints.

  • Interprets touch, pressure, temperature, & pain signals from diff. Parts of the body, allowing us to perceive & respond to sensory stimuli.

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Occipital Lobes

Located at the back of the brain, responsible for processing visual info received from the eyes.

  • Contains primary visual cortex (interprets visual stimuli & helps us perceive shapes, colors, & motion)

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Temporal Lobes

Located on the sides of the brain, involved in processing auditory information, language comprehension, & memory formation.

  • Contain auditory cortex (interprets sound signals from the ears).

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Corpus Callosum

Thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left & right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication & info sharing b/w 2 hemispheres.

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Brainstem

Oldest & most primitive part of the brain, responsible for basic life-sustaining functions (breathing, heart rate, & sleep-wake cycles)

  • Serves as a pathway for neural signals traveling b/w brain & rest of body, connecting the cerebral cortex → spinal cord.

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Medulla

Vital structure located @ base of brainstem, regulating essential autonomic functions (heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure)

  • Serves as relay station for nerve signals traveling b/w brain & spinal cord, controlling involuntary bodily processes crucial for survival.

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Reticular Activating System

Network of neurons located in brainstem that plays critical role in regulating arousal, attention, & consciousness

  • Filters sensory info & modulates overall brain activity, helping maintain wakefulness & alertness

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Cerebellum

Located @ back of brain, below cerebral hemispheres, responsible for coordinating movement, balance, & posture

  • Receives input from sensory systems & other parts of brain to ensure smooth coordination

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Limbic System

Located beneath the cerebral cortex, set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory, & motivation.

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Reward System

Located in limbic system, network of brain structures that processes pleasurable experiences & reinforces behavior associated w/ them

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Thalamus

Relay station in brain that processes & relays sensory info (sight, sound, touch, & taste) → cerebral cortex

  • Gateway for sensory input, directing signals → appropriate areas of brain for further processing

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Hypothalamus

Small but powerful structure located below thalamus, responsible for regulating various essential bodily functions (hunger, thirst, body temp, & sleep-wake cycle)

  • Control center that helps maintain homeostasis in body

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Pituitary Gland “Master Gland”

Small pea-sized gland located @ base of brain, plays central role in regulating hormone production & secretion throughout body

  • Plays key role in coordinating hormonal activity & maintaining homeostasis in body

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Hippocampus

Curved structure located w/in the brain’s temporal lobes, responsible for forming & consolidating new memories.

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Amygdala

Small, almond-shaped structure located deep w/in brain’s temporal lobes, involved in processing emotions (esp fear & aggression)

  • Plays central role in brains threat detection system, triggering body’s fight-or-flight response in response to perceived danger

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Nervous System

Body’s communication network, consisting of a complex system of nerves, neurons, & specialized cells.

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain & spinal cord. Serves as command center of body, responsible for processing info, coordinating responses, & regulating bodily functions.

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of all the nerves & ganglia outside the brain & spinal cord. Serves as a communication network, transmitting sensory info from the body → CNS.

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Autonomic Nervous System

Division of the PNS that regulates involuntary bodily functions. Operated automatically, w/o conscious control.

  • 2 main branches: sympathetic nervous system & parasympathetic nervous system

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Sympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for activating the body’s “fight or flight” response in times of stress/danger.

  • Inc heart rate, dilates airways, & redirects blood flow to essential organs, preparing the body to respond to perceived threats. (arousal)

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for promoting relaxation & restoring the body to a calm state after experiencing stress or danger.

  • Slows heart rate, constricts airways, and enhances digestion, allowing the body to conserve energy and recover from stressors. (resolution)

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Somatic Nervous System

Division of the PNS responsible for controlling voluntary movements & relaying sensory info from the body → CNS.

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Neurons

Specialized cell that serves the building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical & chemical signals throughout the body.

  • Consists of 3 main parts: cell body (soma), dendrites, & axons.

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Glial Cells

“Support cells” of the nervous system. Provide structural support, insulation, & nourishment to neurons.

  • Play essential roles in maintaining brain health & supporting neuronal function.

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Motor Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the CNS (brain & spinal cord) to muscles, glands, & organs, initiation & controlling voluntary/ involuntary movements.

  • Receive commands from the brain/spinal cord & convey these signals to muscles, causing them to contract/relax.

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Sensory Neurons

Specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory info from sensory receptors (such as those in skin, muscles, & organ) → CNS (brain/spinal cord)

  • Detect various stimuli, inc touch, temp, & environmental changes, & convert these stimuli → electrical signals that can be processed by brain

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Interneurons

Nerve cells that serve as connectors w/in the CNS, relaying signals b/w sensory neurons & motor neurons.

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Reflex Arc

Neural pathway that controls reflex actions allowing for rapid, automatic responses to sensory stimuli w/o conscious thought (primitive reflexes)

  • Detect stimuli & send signals → spinal cord. Interneurons relay this info → motor neurons, which trigger reflexive muscle/gland responses

  • Protect body & enable quick reactions to potential dangers

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Neural Transmission

Process which neurons communicate w/ each other through electrical & chemical signals.

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Threshold

Level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in neuron. (Min amount of stimulation necessary to produce response)

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Action Potential

Brief electrical impulse that travels along axon of a neuron.

  • Occurs when neuron receives stimulus that causes inside of cell to become more pos charged than outside

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All-or-Nothing Principle

Once neuron reaches its threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential @ full strength

  • If stimulus = strong enough to trigger action potential → neuron will respond w/ full-strength impulse

  • If stimulus = below threshold -→ neuron will not fire an action potential at all

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Depolarization

Phase of action potential where inside of neuron becomes less neg compared to outside due to influx of pos charged ions (sodium) through ion channels in cell membrane

  • Change in electrical charge triggers neuron to fire an action potential, initiating transmission of an electrical impulse along neuron’s axon

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Refractory Period

Brief period following an action potential during which neuron is unable to generate another action potential

  • Period occurs bc neuron’s sodium channels = temporarily inactivated & cell membrane returns → resting state

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Resting Potential

Stable, neg electrical charge that exists across cell membrane of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting signals

  • Maintained by unequal distribution of ions, w/ more sodium ions outside cell & more potassium ions inside

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Reuptake

Process which neurotransmitters that have been released into synapse are reabsorbed by presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released.

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Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Chronic autoimmune disease that affects the CNS, inc the brain & spinal cord.

  • Occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the protective myelin sheath (fatty substance that surrounds & insulates nerve fibers), causing inflammation & damage.

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Myasthenia Gravis

Chronic autoimmune disorder that affects neuromuscular junction, where nerve impulses = transmitted to muscles

  • Occurs when immune system produces antibodies that block/destroy receptors for acetylcholine (neurotransmitter that stimulates muscle contraction)

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Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals b/w neurons, allowing for communication w/in nervous system

  • Released from presynaptic neurons → synaptic cleft, where they bind to specific receptor sites on postsynaptic neurons, initiating/inhibiting a neural impulse

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Glutamate

Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, playing a key role in synaptic transmission & neuronal communication. 

  • Involved in various brain functions, inc learning, memory, & neural plasticity (change function in response to stimuli)

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Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by neurons that decrease likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron.

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GABA

Neurotransmitter that acts as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. Promotes relaxation & reduces anxiety.

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Dopamine

Neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood, reward, motivation, & movement

  • Dopamine pathways in brain = implcated in experience of pleasure & reward, making it a key neyrotransmitter in brain’s reward system

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Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that plays a vital role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, & stress.

  • Serotonin pathways in brain influence mood & emotional well-being, making it key for mental health.

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Endorphins

Neurotransmitters produced by brain & CNS that act as nautral pain relievers & mood enhancers

  • Released in response to stress, pain, or intense physical activity, such as exercise or excitement

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Substance P

Neurotransmitter involves in transmitting pain signals in nervous system

  • Binds to specific receptors on nerve cells in spinal cord & brain, where it amplifies pain signals & contributes to perception of pain

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Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter that plays a fundamental role in both the CNS and PNS.

  • Involved in muscle contraction, memory, & learning.

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Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target cells/organs, where they regulate various physiological processes & behaviors.

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Ghrelin “Hunger Hormone”

Hormone produced primarily by the stomach & small intestine that stimulates appetite & promotes hunger.

  • Its levels inc before meals & decrease after eating

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Leptin

Hormone produced primarily by fat cells that regulate energy balance & appetite. Acts on the hypothalamus in the brain to suppress appetite & increase energy expenditure.

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Melationin

Hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycle & circadian rhythms in body

  • Plays a curical role in maintaining body’s internal clock & ensuring restful sleep

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Oxytocin “Love/Bonding Hormone”

Hormone & neurotransmitter that plays a key role in social bonding.

  • Involved in forming emotional connections, trust & intimacy

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Adrenaline (“Flight or fight” Response)

Hormone & neurotransmitter that plays key role in body’s stress response

  • Adrenaline levels surge during times of stress, fear, or excitement, helping the body adapt to challenging circumstances

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Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter that functions both as a hormone & neurotransmitter in the body. Involved in “flight or fight” response, regulating arousal, attention, & stress.

  • Plays a critical role in increasing heart rate, blood pressure, & alertness during times of stress/danger

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Plasticity

Brain’s ability to reorganize/adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, & environmental changes.

  • Through processes like synaptic pruning, sprouting of new connections, & changes in neural pathways, brain can adapt & rewire itself to regain lost functions/learn new ones.

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Split Brain Research

Studies individuals who have undergone a surgical procedure called corpus callosotomy, which disconnects the 2 hemispheres of the brain. Done as a treatment for severe epilepsy.

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Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

Phenomenon where each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.

  • Sensory info received by one side of the body is processed by the opposite hemisphere of the brain.

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Linguistic Processing

Complex cognitive processes involved in understanding & producing language.

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Broca’s Area

Located in the left hemisphere of the brain, specifically in the frontal lobe. Responsible for speech production & language processing.

  • Plays a crucial role in the formation of grammatically correct sentences & coordination of the muscles involved in speech

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Broca’s Aphasia

Language disorder caused by damage to the Broca’s area in the left hemisphere, often resulting from stroke/brain injury.

  • Have difficulty producing fluent speech & forming grammatically correct sentences.

  • Speech may be slow, effortful, & characterized by shortened phrases/words

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Wernicke’s Area

Located in the left hemisphere, specifically in the temporal lobe. Involved in language comprehension & understanding spoken & written language.

  • Interprets the meaning of words & sentences, allowing individuals to comprehend & process language.

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Wernicke’s Aphasia

Language disorder caused by damage to Wernicke’s area in left hemisphere of the brain, typically resulting from stroke/brain injury

  • Exhibit fluent speech but have difficulty understanding spoken & written language, as well as producing meaningful & coherent speech.

  • May use nonsensical/inappropriate words/sentences, making communication challenging.

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Non-invasive neuroimaging technique used to record the electrical activity of the brain. Involves placing electrodes on the scalp to detect & measure the electrical signals produced by newtons in the brain. Commonly used to diagnose/monitor various neurological conditions.

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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Neuroimaging technique used to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow/oxygen levels. Provides detailed images of the brain structure & function, allowing researchers to observe which areas of the brain are active during specific tasks/stimuli.

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Lesioning

Research technique used to study brain function by intentionally damaging/destroying specific areas of the brain in experimental animals. Can be achieved through methods such as surgical removal, chemical injection, or electrical stimulation.