A&P Lab Exam 2 Study Guide

Define osteology

the study of the structure and function of the skeleton and bony structures

List the functions of the skeleton

1. support and protection

2. levers for movement

3. hematopoiesis

4. storage of mineral and energy reserves

5. calcium homeostasis

Describe the number of bones depending on their age.

babies = 300 bones

adults = 206 bones

Identify and describe axial skeleton vs the appendicular skeleton

axial = skull, vertebral column, and rib cage

appendicular = all other limbs, pelvic and pectoral girdle

Identify and describe the pectoral girdle

bony structure that connects the arm to the torso

- made up of the clavicle (collarbone) and scapula (shoulder blade)

Identify and describe the humerus

long bone of the upper arm

- connects to shoulder and elbow

Identify and describe the metacarpal bones

the long bones in the palm that connect the wrist (carpal bones) to the fibers (phalanges)

Identify and describe the radius

the larger and thicker bone of the forearm, on the thumb side

Identify and describe the ulna

the longer bone of the forearm, on the medial (pinky) side

Identify and describe the phalanges

bones of the finger and toes, has 14 bones per hand and foot

Identify and describe the hip bone

large fused bone forming the pelvis

- connects to spine and legs

Identify and describe the tarsals

proximal part of the foot, forming the ankle and heel

Identify and describe the metatarsal bones

long bones in the forefoot that connect the tarsal bones to the phalanges

Identify where the hyoid bone is located

in front of the neck, below the jaw, and above the Adams apple

- at the level of C3-C4 vertebrae

- articulates with no other bone

Identify where the femur is located

in the upper leg, extending from hip to knee

Identify where the patella is located

at the front of the knee joint, within the quadriceps tendon

- the kneecap

Identify where the tibia is located

larger of the shin bones, on the medial side, connecting the knee to the ankle

Identify where the fibula is located

skinnier shin bone, on the lateral side

Define excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle

-action potential travels along muscle fiber triggering the release of calcium ions from the SRI

- Release of the ions allows muscle filaments to interact and slide past one another

- causing the muscle to shorten

threshold stimulus

the minimum level of stimulation required to trigger a response

ex. action potential in a neuron or contraction in a muscle fiber

Define maximal stimulus

the minimum force required to recruit all motor units in a muscle, resulting in its maximum possible contraction

- opposite of threshold stimulus

Define the prime mover (agonist), antagonist, and synergist muscles

prime mover (bicep) - provides main force for a movement

antagonist (tricep) - opposes action of agonist

synergist (brachialis brachii)- assists prime mover by stabilizing the joint or making movement more fluid/accurate

Define motor neuron

a nerve cell forming part of a pathway along which impulses pass from the brain or spinal cord to a muscle or gland

Define neuromuscular junction

specialized synapse where a motor neuron connects with a muscle fiber to transmit a signal, initiating muscle contraction

Define sarcolemma

tubular sheath which envelopes the fibers of skeletal muscles

Define sarcoplasm

the cytoplasm of striated muscle cells

Define membrane potential

electric voltage difference across a cell's plasma membrane

- results from unequal distribution of ions (like sodium and potassium) between inside and outside of cell

Define action potential

a rapid, temporary change in the electrical potential across a cell membrane

- also called a nerve impulse or "spike"

Describe skeletal muscle tissue

- voluntary contractions

- striated and multinucleate

- attached to bones

Describe cardiac muscle tissue

- involuntary contractions

- striated, intercalated discs

- found only in heart

Describe smooth muscle tissue

- involuntary contractions

- non striated

- found In walls of organs, blood vessels, and the eye

Describe involuntary vs voluntary muscle

involuntary are not under our conscious control, can't make them contract when we think about to (heart muscles)

voluntary ARE under our conscious control (limbs and overall outer physical movement)

Describe the functions of skeletal muscle tissue

- move the body

- maintain posture

- protect and support

- regulate elimination of materials

- produce heat

Define sarcomere

smallest contractile unit of muscle

- generates contractile force in muscle fibers

Identify the frontalis muscle

muscle located on front of the head in the forehead

- raises eyebrows, wrinkles the skin of forehead, and pulls scalp forward

the masseter muscle

muscle located on each side of the jaw in the cheek area

- responsible for chewing

the nasalis muscle

pair of facial muscles located on the nose

- changes the size of the nostrils

Identify the orbicularis oculi/oris muscles

circular muscles around the eye (oculi) and the mouth (oris)

Identify the sternocleidomastoid muscle

a large, superficial muscle in the neck that runs from the sternum and clavicle to the mastoid process of the skull

Identify the temporalis muscles

large, fan shaped muscles located on the side of the head

Identify the trapezius muscles

a large, triangular muscle on the upper back and neck

the external abdominal oblique muscle

a wide, thin muscle located on the side of the abdomen

- runs diagonally downward and forward

- outer surface of lower 8 abs

Identify the internal abdominal oblique muscle

a broad, thin muscle of the anterolateral abdominal wall

- directly underneath the external oblique

- superficial to the transverse abdominis

Identify the psoas major muscle

a long, deep muscle in the lower back

- connects the lumbar vertebrae to the inner thigh bone (femur)

identify the quadratus lumborum muscle

a deep, flat muscle located in the lower back, lateral to the spine

Identify the rectus abdominis muscle

the six pack abs

a long, paired muscle that runs vertically along the front of the abdomen

Identify the tendinous intersections of the rectus abdominis

three horizontal fibrous bands that divide the muscle into segments

- give abs their separated appearance

Identify transverse abdominis muscle

deepest abdominal muscle, beneath the internal oblique

- wrap around the torso like a corset

Identify the umbilicus muscle

belly button

the point on the abdominal wall formed by convergence of muscles and fascia

Identify the deltoid muscle

shoulder muscle

large, triangular muscle that forms the rounded contour of the shoulder and covers the shoulder joint

Identify how the external abdominal oblique muscle helps with breathing

assists in forceful exhalation

Identify the external intercostal and membrane internal intercostal muscles

external- outer surface of the ribs with fiber visible from front of body

membrane internal- deeper inside rib cage

Identify the latissimus dorsi muscles

large, triangular muscles on the back

- located below shoulder blades and either side of the spine

Identify the pectoralis major muscle

fan shaped muscle in upper chest that forms the bulk of the chest muscles

Identify the pectoralis minor muscle

thin, triangular muscle located deep to the pectoralis major in the upper chest

Identify the serratus anterior muscle

fan shaped muscle, located on the side of the chest

Identify the parts of the sternum

manubrium, body, xiphoid process

Identify the cervical vertebrae

first 7 vertebrae in the spine

- C1-C7

Identify the clavicle

a pair of long S shaped bones that run horizontally at the base of the neck

- connects the sternum to the shoulder blades

Identify the costal cartilage

hyaline cartilage that connects the ribs to the sternum at the front of the thoracic cage

Identify the intervertebral disc

flat, round, cushion like structure located between two vertebrae

- absorbs shock and allows for movement of the spine

Identify the lumbar vertebrae

the 5 vertebrae of the lower back

- L1-L5

Identify ribs 1-12

true ribs 1-7

false ribs 8-10

floating ribs 11-12

Identify the thoracic vertebra

the 12 vertebrae in the middle section of the spine

- T1-T12

Explain the functions of the nervous system

1. collect information

2. process and evaluate information

3. initiate response to information

Describe the 2 divisions of the nervous system

central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Describe the subdivisions of the PNS

somatic NS- controls voluntary movements

autonomic NS- regulates involuntary movements

What are the 2 divisions of the ANS?

sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest)

Define neuron

nerve cell

Define dendrites

branching projections of a neuron

- conduct impulses to cell body of neuron

Define axon

elongated projection of a neuron

- conducts impulses away from cell body of neuron

Define what a trigger zone is in the nervous system

specific area in the nervous system where a particular stimulus elicits a specific response

ex. where action potentials are generated in neurons

Differentiate between node of Ranvier and Internodes

nodes of ranvier- gaps in myelin sheath along an axon

internode- insulated segments of the axon between nodes of ranvier gaps

What is the function of myelination?

insulate nerve axons and speed up the transmission of action potentials along nerve cells

Define neuroglia

connective tissue of nervous system, consists of several types of cell associated with neurons

Define astrocytes

star shaped glia cells

- anchor small blood vessels to neurons

Define ependymal cells

lines ventricles of brain/central canal, or spinal cord

- assists in production and circulation of CSF

Define microglia

small cells

- move in inflamed brain tissue carrying on phagocytosis

Define oligodendrocytes

form myelin sheaths around axons in CNS

Define Schwann cells

form myelin sheaths in PNS only

Define satellite cells

electrically insulates PNS cell bodies

- regulates nutrient and waste exchange for cell bodies in ganglia

Define electrical potential

the electric potential energy per unit charge at a specific point in an electrical field

- measured in volts

Describe white matter

tissue in the brain and spinal cord that connects different areas of the CNS

- enables communication between the two parts of the CNS

Describe gray matter

the "thinking" part of the brain

- responsible for processing information and performing functions like memory, emotions, and conscious thought

What are the five cerebral lobes?

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, insular

Identify the diencephalon and it's parts (3)

- thalamus

- hypothalamus

- epithalamus

Identify the cerebellum

located at the back of the brain, inferior to occipital and temporal lobes and behind the brainstem