EXAM 2 REVIEW: BIOPSYCH

What is the term for the process where a neurotransmitter is 'chewed up' or broken down in the synapse?

Degradation

What is the process called when a neurotransmitter is 'picked up' or reabsorbed by the neuron that released it?

Reuptake

Where do neurons typically hold the neurotransmitters they have manufactured?

Axon terminals

What is the specific name for the cell that receives a signal across a synapse?

Post-synaptic cell

What is the primary role of the neurotransmitter Glutamate in the brain?

It acts as the dominant excitatory neurotransmitter

Which ion enters the axon terminal to trigger the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse?

Calcium

A deficit in which neurotransmitter is associated with neurocognitive disorders or coma?

Glutamate

What is the primary role of the neurotransmitter GABA in the brain?

It acts as the dominant inhibitory neurotransmitter

The lack of which neurotransmitter is specifically linked to seizures and anxiety?

GABA

In the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), what are the two main functions of Acetylcholine?

Motor control and parasympathetic activity

Which neurotransmitter is primarily responsible for learning and memory modulation within the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

Acetylcholine

What clinical condition results from a lack of Acetylcholine, leading to the inability of muscles to contract?

Flaccid paralysis

Dopamine is produced in which two specific areas of the midbrain?

The Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) and the Substantia Nigra (SN).

An excess of Dopamine is associated with which psychological disorder?

Schizophrenia

Which neurodegenerative disease is caused by a lack of Dopamine?

Parkinson’s disease

Where is Serotonin primarily produced before being sent throughout the forebrain?

The midbrain and brainstem

What condition occurs when there is a toxic excess of Serotonin in the system?

Serotonin syndrome

List the three stages of the production pathway for catecholamines.

Dopamine → Norepinephrine → Epinephrine

What are the primary functional roles of Norepinephrine in the brain?

Alertness, mood, and sexual behaviour

What is the primary job of endogenous opioids, also known as Endorphins?

Painkillers

Which drug is used as an antagonist to reverse the effects of an opioid overdose?

Naloxone

Classification: Which two primary neurotransmitters are categorised as 'Up' or increasing brain activity?

Glutamate and Epinephrine (or Norepinephrine).

Classification: Which three substances are categorised as 'Down' or decreasing brain activity?

GABA, Melatonin, and Adenosine (or Opioids).

Psychoactive Drug

Definition: An external chemical substance that alters perceptions, mood, or behaviour by affecting consciousness.

At what specific part of the neuron does neurotransmitter production occur?

The axon (at the top)

Where in the synaptic structure does neurotransmitter clearance take place?

In the synapse (between the pre- and post-synaptic membranes)

How do LSD and Alcohol differ in their categorization even though both are agonists?

Alcohol is a depressant, while LSD is a hallucinogen

Which specific receptor does LSD bind to in the visual cortex to produce hallucinations?

Serotonin 5−HT2A​ receptor

By what mechanism do Amphetamines increase Dopamine signalling at the synapse?

They reverse transporters to increase release and block the breakdown of Dopamine

What is the primary mechanism by which Caffeine acts as a stimulant?

It blocks adenosine receptors, preventing adenosine from reducing Dopamine and Glutamate activity

Mechanism: Agonist

A substance that enhances or mimics normal neuronal activity

Mechanism: Antagonist

A substance that inhibits or blocks normal neuronal activity.

Which neurotransmitter system is targeted by Nicotine?

Acetylcholine

Which neurotransmitter system does Cannabis primarily mimic?

Endocannabinoids

What class of psychiatric medication is used to treat Schizophrenia by acting as a Dopamine antagonist?

Anti-psychotic

How do SSRIs function at the synapse to treat depression?

They inhibit the reuptake of Serotonin, increasing its availability

What does the 'I' stand for in the antidepressant class MAO-Is?

Inhibitors (specifically Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors)

Why must patients on MAO-Is be cautious about their diet?

What they eat can significantly impact the experience or side effects of the drug

Benzodiazepines are used as anxiolytics by acting as agonists for which neurotransmitter?

GABA

Transduction

The translation of raw sensory signals (like light or sound) into neural signals

What does it mean for sensation to be 'selective'?

It is tuned only to specific stimuli rather than all available information

Which theme of perception describes the brain processing different aspects of a sensation simultaneously in different regions?

Perception is integrative (parallel processing)

What two cognitive factors most strongly affect how we perceive sensory information?

Attention and expectation

What is the name for the distinct neural pathways that carry specific sensory experiences, such as touch versus vibration?

Labeled lines

During somatosensation transduction, which ion enters the nerve membrane once it is stretched?

sodium

How does a neuron's response change as the intensity of a physical stimulus increases?

The neuron's response increases (typically through firing rate)

In a sound wave, which property corresponds to the perceived volume?

Amplitude

In a sound wave, which property corresponds to the perceived pitch?

Wavelength (or frequency)

What physical movement in the inner ear triggers the opening of ion channels for auditory transduction?

The movement of hair cells (cilia)

Which ion channels are opened in hair cells following initial depolarisation to facilitate auditory signalling?

Calcium-gated channels

What are the small bones in the middle ear that connect to one another to transmit sound vibrations?

Ossicles

Which end of the cochlea is responsible for detecting lower frequency sounds?

The apical end

Which end of the cochlea is responsible for detecting higher frequency sounds?

The basal end

What is the standard frequency range for human hearing?

20Hz to 20 kHz

How do cochlear implants differ from normal hearing in terms of sound resolution?

They use only 12−16 electrodes, providing much lower resolution than natural hair cells

Which part of the eye contains the photoreceptor cells responsible for detecting photons?

The retina

What are the characteristics of Rod photoreceptors regarding colour and light sensitivity?

They detect no colour, have low acuity, but possess high light sensitivity

What are the characteristics of Cone photoreceptors regarding colour and detail?

They detect colour, have high acuity (detail), but possess low light sensitivity

In which specific part of the retina are cones most highly concentrated?

The fovea

What is the 'optic disc' and why does it cause a blind spot?

It is where the optic nerve and blood vessels exit the eye, leaving no room for photoreceptors

Why can humans not see colour in their peripheral vision?

Cones (colour detectors) are concentrated in the centre, while the periphery is dominated by rods

What is the primary cause of colourblindness in an individual?

The individual is missing one of the cone types

Which cells in the visual system are the first to communicate via action potentials rather than graded signals?

Ganglion cells

Where do the axons of the optic nerve cross over in the brain?

The optic chiasm

If an object is in your left visual field, which side of the cortex processes that information?

The right cortex

What is the name of the thalamic nucleus that receives visual information from the optic tract?

The Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)

Perceptual Constancy

The tendency to perceive objects as unchanging (in size, shape, or hue) despite changes in sensory input.

About how far into the future is the visual system constantly predicting to compensate for processing delays?

About 1/10 of a second

What happened to patient Henry Molaison (HM) after his bilateral medial temporal lobectomy?

He became unable to form new conscious, long-term memories.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Memories that you know and can describe or tell to others

Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory

Memories that you know and can demonstrate by doing, such as procedural skills

Which brain structure is critical for the consolidation of short-term explicit memory into long-term memory?

The hippocampus

Which brain region is primarily responsible for holding and manipulating information in working memory?

The prefrontal cortex

Which two brain regions are primarily involved in procedural (motor) memory?

The Striatum (Basal Ganglia) and the motor cortex

Which brain structure is essential for forming emotional associations in classical conditioning?

The amygdala

Where are general 'concepts' and what things mean usually stored in the brain?

Throughout the cortex

What are 'place cells' in the hippocampus?

Neurons that develop preferences for and fire in specific spatial locations

Neurogenesis

The process by which new neurons are born and grow in the brain

According to research in mice, how does increased neurogenesis affect memory retention?

Increasing neurogenesis leads to remembering less and for a shorter duration (forgetting)

What is the 'trade-off' associated with 'too little' neurogenesis in the brain?

An individual may not be able to encode a lot of new information in the first place

Synaptic Plasticity

The formation, removal, or change in strength of communication between neurons at the synapse

What does Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) do to the communication between two neurons?

It strengthens the synapse if it is used frequently

What does Long-Term Depression (LTD) do to the communication between two neurons?

It weakens the synapse if it remains unused

In the mechanism of LTP, what happens to the number of receptors on the post-synaptic cell?

The number of receptors increases

How does LTP affect the amount of neurotransmitter contained in each vesicle?

It increases the amount of neurotransmitters per vesicle