haap: chapter 6 - DNA and electrophoresis/Bone Anatomy and Physiology

what is the 3D shape of DNA?

double helix

what is the backbone of DNA made of?

sugar-phosphate

What is complementary base pairing? Give examples found in the DNA

A-T and G-C

What types of bonds hold the 2 strands of DNA together?

hydrogen bonds

What is meant by antiparallel strands?

5' and 3' ends, polymerase goes 5' -> 3'

What is DNA helicase?

unzips DNA

What is DNA polymerase?

copies DNA

Chromosome

wound up DNA in the nucleus

Gene

a distinct sequence of nucleotides forming a part of a chromosome

Allele

alternative form of a gene

Locus

position of a gene or mutation on a chromosome

Enzyme

a specific protein produced by a living organism

Genotype

the genetic makeup of an individual organism

Nucleotide

sugar, phosphate, base

Protein

chain of Amino Acids essential for life, especially as structural components

2 big problems when trying to do DNA fingerprinting

Specificity - there's so many base pairs in DNA, and the section we need is tiny

Amplification - DNA is tiny, so how can we see it?

What can PCR be used for?

DNA detection, identifying transgenic plants, detection/quantification of viral infection, cloning, detection of ancient DNA, gene expression analysis

What is the first step of PCR?

Denaturing - add heat which seperates the double helix

What is the second step of PCR?

Annealing - cools and primers bond

What is the third step of PCR?

DNA Synthesis - make new strands and Taq Polymerase is used

What is the fourth step in PCR?

repeat

What are restriction enzymes?

cut DNA into pieces, specific enzymes cut at specific places

What is electrophoresis?

movement of charged particles because of an electric field

How does electrophoresis work?

smaller molecules move faster

1. DNA is - charged bc of phosphates on backbone

2. DNA moves from - side of gel to + side of gel, giving DNA bands

3. Same DNA bands = same individual, similar DNA bands = related

What is biometrics?

identifying through biological characteristics

What are the 2 kinds of biometrics?

1. Physiological (what you look like)

2. Behavioral (how you act)

Epiphysis part of a bone

the end of a long bone, usually larger in diameter than the shaft

Diaphysis part of a bone

the shaft of a long bone

Cartilage

translucent, somewhat elastic tissue that composes most of the skeleton of vertebrae embryos. It's replaced by bone during ossification

Periosteum

a dense layer of vascular connective tissue enveloping the bones except at the surface of the joints

What are the 3 main components of bone?

1. Organic matrix

2. Inorganic matrix

3. Bone Cells

How do bone cells recieve nutrition and signals?

Vascular canals

What are the 4 kinds of bone classification?

1. Long - longer than wide - ex femur

2. Short - equal length and width - ex carpals

3. Flat - thin and flat, often curved - ex sternum

4. Irregular - complex shapes - ex vertebrae

What is the difference between diaphysis, epiphysis, and metaphysis in terms of location?

Diaphysis - shaft of the bone

Epiphysis - ends of the bone

Metaphysis - b/w diaphysis and the epiphysis

What are the 2 kinds of bone matrix?

Organic matrix and inorganic matrix

What kind of bone matrix do you find in the diaphysis and epiphysis?

Diaphysis matrix - hard and dense

Epiphysis matrix - spongy bone

What is the difference between red and yellow marrow in terms of location and function?

Red - produces blood cells and is found in the spongy bone

Yellow - stores fat and is found in the central cavity

What makes bones hard?

collagen and calcium

Where is the periosteum? What does it do?

A thin layer that covers the surface of the bone

What are the 3 kinds of cartilage, and where are they found?

hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage

What is Hyaline cartilage and where is it found?

supports with flexibility and resilience

most abundant

makes the embryonic skeleton

found on ends of bones, ribs-sternum, external nose

What is elastic cartilage and where is it found?

more elastic fibers

found in epiglottis and ear

What is fibrocartilage and where is it found?

highly compressible

great tensile strenth

found in knees and between vertebrae

What does it mean that cartilage is avascular and aneural?

no veins (avascular) and no nerves (aneural)

What is perichondrium? What is its purpose?

a layer that covers and protects cartilage

What are the functions of bone?

shape

support

protection

movement

mineral and growth factor storage

hematopeiesis (making blood in red marrow)

What is an osteocyte?

mature bone cell

What is an osteoblast?

makes new bone

What is an osteoclast

bone resorption (opposite of osteoblast)

What is a comminuted fracture?

bone is broken in at least two places

surgery and recovery is 1+ years

What is a depression fracture?

bone fragment are depressed below normal surface

typically the skull

What is a compression fracture?

small break/crack in the vertebrae

causes spine to weaken and collapse

affects posture

What is a transverse fracture?

the break is perpendicular to the shaft

What is an oblique fracture?

bone is broken at an angle

typically affect long bones

What is a spiral fracture?

bone broke with a twistin motion

fracture line wraps around your bone like a corkscrew

What is a greenstick fracture?

bone bends and cracks, instead of breaking completely into seperate pieces

What does it mean if a fracture is displaced?

bone ends are out of alignment

What does it mean if a fracture is nondisplaced?

bone ends are aligned

What is an open fracture?

the bone penetrates the skin

What is a closed fracture?

the bone doesn't penetrate the skin

What is the first step in prenatal bone growth?

skeleton starts as hyaline cartilage

bone collar forms around the shaft

What is the second step in prenatal bone growth?

cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies

What is the third step in prenatal bone growth?

vein invades internal cavities

What is the fourth step in prenatal bone growth?

Spongy bone beings to form

What is the fifth step in prenatal bone growth?

Diaphysis elongates and cavity forms

What is the sixth step in prenatal bone growth?

epiphysies ossifies (childhood)

What is the seventh step in prenatal bone growth?

cartilage remains in two places

Where does the cartilage remain in the seventh step of prenatal bone growth?

Epiphyseal surface for cushion

Growth plate in metaphysis

How do you increase your bone density?

exercise

get enough calcium and vitamin D

How does your body regulate bone growth?

growth hormone stimulates epiphyseal plate

need proper growth hormone

What are the steps to bone healing after it's been broken?

Hematoma, Fibrocartilage Callus forms, Bony Callus forms, Bone remodeling

What happens in the Hematoma stage of bone healing?

blood vessels ruptured by the break, swell to form a hematoma (happens b/w broken bones)

What happens in the Fibrocartilage Callus formation stage?

new capillaries begin to form into a blood clot

connective tissue cells form a mass of repair tissue called a fibrocartilage callus

callus closes the gap b/w the broken bones

What does a callus contain?

cartilage, bone, and collagen fibers

What is a callus?

growth of new bone tissue

What happens in the Bony Callus formation step?

fibrocartilage callus is gradually replaced by spongy bone called the bony callus

osteoclasts/blasts move to area and multiply

What happens in the Bone Remodeling step?

callus is remodeled using osteoclasts/blasts

shape of bone will gradually return to normal

What are the common bone problems?

rickets, osteoporosis, arthritis, bunion, dislocation

What is the cause and treatment of rickets?

bone grows rapidly, results in bowed legs, deformities in the skull, ribs, pelvis

cause: lack of Ca and Vit D

What is the cause and treatment of osteoporosis?

resorption happens faster than bone deposit

bones become light, porous, and brittle\

prevention: exercise and diet

What is the cause and treatment of Arthritis?

inflammation of joints

What is osteoarthritis?

due to old age, joint surfaces wear out

What is rheumatoid arthritis?

involves synovial membrane and thickening of cartilage

What is the cause and treatment of a bunion?

deformity of joint by the big toe

treatment: orthotics/surgery

What is the cause and treatment of dislocation?

movement beyond the limit of normal motion

usually the bone is not broken, the joint is just misaligned