Psych Unit I-II

Case Study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Control Group

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1); r is used to represent value

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient (r) is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Dependent Variables

The outcome factor, what is being measured -- the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Descriptive statistics

Used to describe the basic features of the data in a study.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variable

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (I-Knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists (i.e., athletes and rituals or superstitions)

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated--the variable whose effect is being studied

Inferential Statistics

numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance

Informed Consent

an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Kenneth and Mamie Clark

Used dolls to study children's attitude towards race. Their findings were used in the Brown vs. Board trial.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtaining by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean, Median, Mode

Measures of Variation

Range, Variance, Standard Deviation

Median

The middle score in a distribution--half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Normal Curve/distribution

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer near the extremes

Operational Definition

A statement of the procedures used to define research variables. Ex human intelligence -- what an intelligence test measures. (remember the fidget!)

p value

0.05 for statistical significance; ≤ .05 (5%)

Placebo Effect

any effect that seems to be a consequence of administering a placebo

Placebo

a pill/inert substance used for the "affect" of a drug; often times a sugar pill

Population

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

Psuedo-Psychology

is a false or unscientific form of Psychology.

r

value to signify correlation coefficient

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Random Sampling

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Regression toward the Mean

the tendency for extremes of unusual scores or events to regress toward the average. (i.e. Baseball player hits 240 normally, now hits 305, eventually will go back to 'normal' hitting average)

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Scientific Attitude

curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong)

Single Blind Procedure

Study in which either the researcher OR the experimenter are "blind" to the treatment being used; NOT both!

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score (i.e., average error of different scores are)

Stanley Milgram

Yale University Psychologist, notable study in the 1960s on Obedience (Experimenter, Teacher and Learner - Teacher doesn't know what is happening.) How willing will the teacher be to "shock" the person learner?

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance; p ≤ .05 (5%)

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

Variance

Mathematical computation that shows how spread out data points are from mean.

Empirical Approach

Letting the facts speak for themselves/scientifically proven

Scatterplots

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the value of 2 variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

Double Blind Procedure

testing procedure, designed to eliminate biased results, in which the identity of those receiving a test treatment is concealed from both administrators and subjects until after the study is completed.

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value (can be either positive or negative -- the mean is what MOVES the skew)

Experimenter (Researcher) bias

occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

sampling bias

exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn

variable

A factor that can change in an experiment

Scatterplot

name for a graph of data points in a two variable correlation

Validity

Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

Sleep

Periodic natural loss of conciousness

Circadian rhythm

Regular bodily rhythms that occur in 24 hour cycle (Our biological clock)

Examples of circadian rhythm

Body temperature, thinking, memory

REM sleep characteristics

Rapid eye movement, vivid dreams, muscles relaxing, active body system. Gets longer as night progress. Sleep paralysis can occur in this stage

Alpha waves

Slow brain waves of a relaxed awake state

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep, every other sleep stage other than REM

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences

Hypnagogic sensations

Bizarre feeling such as falling or floating while transitioning to sleep

Delta Waves

Large slow brain waves associated with deep sleep of NREM-3

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm

NREM-1 characteristics

Hypnagogic sensations and hallucinations,

NREM-2 characteristics

Sleep spindles, stage gets longer as night goes on

NREM-3 characteristics

Delta waves, grows shorter and disappears as night goes on

Sleep paralysis causation

Motor cortex is active, but brainstem blocks it’s messages

Melatonin production is (increased/d

Melatonin production is (increased/decreased) in the night

Increased

Why do we sleep?

1. Protection

2. Immune system restoration and repair brain tissue

3. Restore and rebuild fading memories

4. Feeds creative thinking

5. Supports growth

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling asleep or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

Sudden attacks of heavy sleepiness often triggered by strong emotions

Sleep apnea

Stopping breathing while sleeping

Sleepwalking

doing normal waking activities while asleep

When does sleepwalking occur?

NREM-3

When does sleeptalking occur?

Any sleep stage

Night terror

Appearing terrified, talking nonsense, or walking around during NREM-3 sleep (NOT THE SAME AS NIGHTMARES)

Effects of insomnia

Chronic tiredness, reliance on alcohol or sleeping pills, reduced REM sleep

Effects of sleep apnea

Fatigue and depression, associated with obesity especially among men

Effects of night terrors

Doubling of child’s heart and breathing rate during the attack

Dream

Sequence of images, emotion, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

Manifest content

Remembered storyline of a dream (According to Freud)

Latent content

underlying meaning of a dream (According to Freud)

REM rebound

tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

Psychoactive drug

Chemical substance that alters perception and mood

Substance use disorder

Disorder characterized by continued substance use despite significant life disruption

Tolerance

Brain’s chemistry adapts to offset drug effect, leading to larger doses required to experience same effect

Withdrawal

Discomfort following discontinuing addictive drug or behavior

Depressants

Reduces neural activity and slow body function

Barbiturates

Drugs that depress CNS, reduces anxiety but impairs memory and judgement

Opiates

Depresses neural activity, temporarily lessens pain and anxiety

Stimulant

Drug that excite neural activity and speed up body function

Nicotine

A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug

Cocaine

Powerful and addictive stimulant derived from coca plant

Amphetamines

Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated with energy and mood changes

methamphetamine

drug that stimulates the CNS with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; reduces baseline dopamine levels