A&P Unit One Exam - Chapters 1-3

Characteristics of life (7)

cells, growth, metabolism, reproduction, excretion, responsiveness, movement

Structural Organization of the Body

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

Types of Anatomy (3)

1. surface - no dissection; study of surface markings using sight

2. gross - examining structures w/ unaided eyes

3. microscopic - aided by microscope

Integumentary Organs (3)

skin, hair, nails

Integumentary Functions

protection, vitamin D synthesis, pain and pleasure reception, sweat and oil glands

Skeletal Organs (2)

bones and joints

Skeletal Functions

protection, support, movement, mineral storage, and hematopoiesis (blood cell formation)

Nervous Organs (3)

brain, spinal cord, nerves

Nervous Functions

control system of body; perceives + responds to stimuli by activating glands and muscles

Muscular System (Organ + Function)

skeletal muscles allow movement, maintain posture, and produce heat

Endocrine Organs (8)

adrenal gland, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid, thymus, pancreas, ovary, testis

Endocrine Functions

endocrine glands excrete hormones that facilitate processes like growth, reproduction, and metabolism

Cardiovascular Organs (2)

heart and blood vessels

Cardiovascular Functions

heart pumps blood, transports oxygen/ co2

Lymphatic/Immune System Organs (6)

spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, red bone marrow, thoracic duct

Lymphatic Functions

pick up and returns leaking fluid from blood vessels, disposes debris, houses lymphocytes for immune response

Respiratory Organs (6)

nose, lungs, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus

Respiratory Functions

supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide in blood; gaseous exchange occurs through walls of lung air sacs

Digestive Organs (9)

mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, anus, rectum, small intestine, large intestine

Digestive Functions

ingestion, digestion, absorption, defecation

Female Reproductive Organs (5)

uterus, vagina, mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tube

Female Reproductive Functions

production of eggs, site of fertilization and fetal development, fetal nourishment, birth, lactation, secretion of sex hormones

Male Reproductive Organs (5)

testis, penis, vans deferens, prostate gland, scrotum

Male Reproductive Functions

production and delivery of sperm, secretion of sex hormones

Anatomical Position

erect, feet forward, arms at side with palms facing forward, head facing forward

Frontal/Coronal Plane

front and back sections

Sagittal/Midsagittal Plane

divides left and right sections

Transverse/Horizontal Plane

top and bottom sections

Superior/Cranial

toward the head

Inferior/Caudal

towards tail, away from the head

Anterior/Ventral

front of the body

Posterior/Dorsal

back of body

Medial

toward the midline

Lateral

away from the midline

Proximal

closer to point of origin/attachment

Distal

away from the point of origin/attachment

Superficial

near the surface

Deep

away from the surface

Where is the knee in reference to the pectoral?

The knee is inferior to the pectoral. (Note: If you cross sections, use superior/inferior. Use proximal/distal for individual appendages/limbs)

Dorsal/Posterior Cavity

cranial and spinal

Ventral/Anterior Cavity

thoracic and abdominopelvic

What separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominalpevic cavity?

the diaphragm

Parietal Layer

covers cavity

Visceral Layer

covers organ (outside)

What is between the parietal and visceral layers?

serous fluid (inside)

Pericardial Cavity

sits within the mediastinum

parietal pericardium - covers the pericardial cavity

visceral pericardium - covers the heart

Pleural Cavity

contains lungs

parietal pleura - covers pleural cavity

visceral pleura - covers lungs

Peritoneal Cavity

abdominal cavity

parietal & visceral peritoneum

intraperitoneal - inside cavity ex) small intestine

retroperitoneal - behind/outside cavity ex) kidney, rectum, and sex organs

Abdominopelvic regions & quadrants

the regions -

TOP: right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac

MIDDLE: right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar

BOTTOM: right iliac, hypogastric, left iliac

quadrants -

TOP: right & left upper

BOTTOM: right & left lower

Homeostasis

process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment

Feedback Mechanism

1. receptor- perceives stimulus

2. control center- processes stimulus and directs effector

3. effector- takes action

Positive Feedback Loop

causes a system to change further in the same direction

think: positive feedback makes you want to do that thing more!

ex) cervical pressure -> nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain -> brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin -> oxytocin is transported via bloodstream to uterus -> oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes baby to create cervical pressure

Negative Feedback Loop

system responds to a change by returning to its original state, or by decreasing the rate at which the change is occurring

think: when you receive negative feedback, you stop what you're doing and/or return to normal

ex) increase in body temp -> sweating and returning to normal body temp

Structure and Function

Function follows form

Gradient

the change in value of a quantity, such as temperature, pressure, or concentration

*important to maintaining homeostasis

How do cells communicate with one another?

chemical signals, such as proteins or other molecules created by the sender

Ligand

a molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule

Why is cellular communication important?

signaling regulates how organisms grow, reproduce, react to stimuli, maintain metabolism and homeostasis

Duet Rule

First ring of electron shell accepts up to two electrons

Octet Rule

gaining or losing electrons so as to acquire stable electron structure, eight valence electrons

Noble Gases

have eight valence electrons, so no desire to bond with other elements (Helium, Helium, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon)

Major Elements of the Human Body (96%)

oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

Mineral Elements

calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine

Trace Elements

iron, zinc, copper, iodine

Atom

the basic unit of a matter/chemical element

Element

pure substance that consists entirely of one type of atom

Atomic Number

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (usually also the number of electrons, unless cation or anion)

Mass Number

the sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atomic nucleus

Isotope

atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons

Radioisotope

isotope with an unstable nucleus

How are isotopes made?

they were either formed that way, enriched with neutrons sometime during their life, or are originated from nuclear processes that alter atomic nuclei

Mixture

combination of two or more substances that are physically combined (no change chemically)

Suspension

a heterogeneous mixture that separates into layers over time

ex) vial of blood

Colloid

a heterogenous mixture containing small, undissolved particles that do not settle out

ex) cream, milk, jelly

Solution

a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances uniformly dispersed throughout

ex) salt water

Molecule

a group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds

ex) glucose molecule, water molecule

Compound

substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in definite proportions

Note: All molecules are not compounds. All compounds are molecules.

How electrons in a valence shell determine stability and desire for chemical bonds

atoms strive to have a complete valence shell of 8 electrons to become stable. an element with an incomplete shell will seek out another element that will have # of remaining electrons

ex) NaCL - Sodium has 7 electrons in outer shell, wants to bond with Chloride which has 1 electron

Ion

an atom/molecule that has a positive or negative charge

Cation

positive charged ion due to loss of electron(s)

Anion

negatively charged ion due to gain of electron(s)

Ionic Bond

chemical bond between a metal and non-metal where one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to the other

ex) NaCl

Polar Covalent Bond

unequal sharing of electrons of two non-metals

think: big kid and small kid fighting over a toy

ex) water molecule

Non-Polar Covalent Bond

equal sharing of electrons, no charge

think: twins of equal strength pulling a toy

three situations:

-atoms sharing are the same element

-the arrangement of atoms makes atom unable to pull more

-bond is between hydrogen-carbon

ex) chlorine gas, He2

Hydrogen Bond

weak attraction between a slightly positive end of a dipole and a slightly negative dipole end

Surface Tension

measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid, water's surface tension is based on weak strength of the hydrogen bonds

Chemical Reaction

chemical bond is formed, rearranged, or broken or when electrons are transferred between two or more atoms

reactants -> products or products -> reactants

Dipole

a molecule that has two oppositely charged ends

Endergonic Reaction

require energy input from another source; products will have more energy than reactants

Exergonic Reaction

releases excess energy; products have less energy than reactants

Electronegativity

ability of an atom to attract electrons

Note: Noble gases have no electronegativity due to valence shell being full

ex) fluorine is the most electronegative element

Reactant

starting ingredients that undergo chemical reaction

Product

substance produced in a chemical reaction

Energy

the capacity to do work or fuel chemical reaction

Potential Energy

stored energy; can be held to release at a later time

Kinetic Energy

potential energy that has been released or set in motion

Note: ALL atoms have kinetic energy (in constant motion); faster movement = more energy

Three Forms of Energy (Body)

1. chemical- stored in bonds between atoms; drives nearly all chemical processes

2. electrical- generated by movement of charged particles

ex) flow of electrons

3. mechanical- energy directly transferred from one object to another

ex) muscle contraction moving limb

Anabolic Reaction

synthesis = new bonds created

Catabolic Reaction

decomposition = bonds are broken

Exchange Reaction

the reacting molecules are shuffled around to produce new products